political system

Synonyms

Thetermssimilartothepoliticalsystemalsoinclude"regimeform","stateform","governmentform","regimeorganizationform","statestructureform"and"Governmentsystem",theseareallclassifiedtermsforpolitics.

Course

ComparativeresearchonthetheoryofregimesmainlyfocusesontheWest.Fromthevariouscity-statesystemsintheancientGreekperiodtothesystempracticeaftertheEnlightenment,varioussystemsappearedonthescene;fromPlatotoAristotle,andthentoMill,Westernpoliticalthinkershavecarriedoutthestatepolity.Long-termsummaryandresearch.

Classicalgovernment

ThesystematicinterpretationofthetheoryofgovernmentintheWestcanbetracedbacktoPlato.Inhisearly"IdealState",heproposedfivetheoriesofthecycleofregimes:aristocracy(orkingship),Spartan-Creteregime(timocracy,ortranslatedastheregimeoflordsorpowers).Government),oligarchy,democracy,tyranny.Thefivepolitiesarecyclicallychanged.Theignoranceoffertilityledtoadeclineinthequalityofthepopulation,thegenerationofprivatepropertyandfamilies,andthegenerationoffreepeopleasslaves,thusdegradingintoaregimeofnobles;thefascinationofthenobleregimewithachievements,honorsandmoneyledtotheaccumulationoflargeamountsofwealthbyafewpeople.,Therebydegeneratingintoanoligarchy;oligarchyusespropertytodeterminestatus,leadingtothehatredofthepoortowardstherich,andthecivilianpolityreplacestheoligarchy;thecivilianpolityover-respectsfreedom,leadingtolossoforderandmorality,resultingintotalitarianpolitics.Asaresult,thetyrantgovernmentreplacedtheciviliangovernment;thetyrantgovernmentactedsolelyonthewillofthetyrant,andtheendoftotalitariandictatorshipmadeitpossibleforthenoblegovernmenttoemerge.

Inhislateryears,Platoreintroducedtheoverallclassificationpointofviewinhis"OntheStatesman".First,accordingtothenumberofrulers,thegovernmentisdividedintoamonarchyruledbyoneperson(orkingship),aristocraticgovernmentruledbyafewpeople,andaciviliangovernmentruledbythemajority;then,accordingtowhethertheruleoflawisimplemented,itisthesameasthesethreetypesofgovernment.Onecorrespondenceproducestyrants,oligarchs,andmobs.Platobelievesthat"aone-manauthoritariangovernment,ifitisgovernedonlybygoodwrittenlaws,isthebestofthesixregimes;however,ifitdoesnotfollowthelaw,itisthemostruthlessandoppresseshiscitizensthemost.Amazing."In"OnLaw",Platoputforwardthetheoryofmixedpolity.Hedividedthepoliticalsystemintotwomajorcategories,oneisthemonarchy,andtheotheristhedemocracy.Mostcountriesareacombinationofthesetworegimestovaryingdegrees.

Aristotle,whostudiedunderPlato,believesthatthepoliticalsystemisthebasisofallpoliticalorganizations.Inhisbook"Politics",Aristotledividesthepoliticalsystemintomonarchy,aristocracy,andrepublic(Politeia)accordingtothenumberofrulers;accordingtothepurposeofadministration,threetypesofpoliticalsystemsemergefromthesethreepoliticalsystems.Abnormalregimes:tyrantregimes,oligarchyandcivilianregimes.Theclassificationbasisisrichandpoorandclassdifferences.Aristotle’sidealpoliticalsystemismorallypursuinggood,republicastheform,andtheruleoflawasthemeans.

WiththestrengthoftheRomanRepublic,thinkersrepresentedbyCicerotookthetheoryofregimesabigstepforward.Cicerodefinedtheconceptofthecountryin"OntheRepublic",dividingthepoliticalsystemintoamonarchyinwhichonepersonrulesthecountry,anaristocracyinwhichafewelectedpeoplerulethecountry,andademocracycontrolledbythepeoplethemselves.Atthesametime,hebelievedthatthebestpolityisthe"balancedblending"ofthesethreepolities,andthattheRomanRepublicistheembodimentoftheidealpolityform.

Europeantheory

Medieval

ThomasAquinasreinterpretedAristotle’spoliticalphilosophyandputtheregimeinaccordancewiththeruler’spoliticalgoalsDividewiththenumberofpeople.Arulethatseekshappinessforthepeopleundertheruleisjust,andaccordingtothenumberofrulers,theyare:monarchy,aristocratic,andcivilian;arulethatdoesnotseekhappinessforthepeopleisunrighteous,andaccordingtothenumberofrulers:Tyrantgovernment,oligarchy,democraticgovernment;whileciviliansoppresstherichthroughnumericalsuperiority,itisamobgovernment.Aquinasbelievesthatthebestregimeisthemonarchy,whiletheworstregimeisthetyrant.

Modern

AftertheEnlightenment,theepoch-makingfigureinpoliticaltheorywastheFrenchthinkerJeanBoudin.Accordingtothenumberofpeopleinchargeofnationalsovereignty,hedividedthegovernmentintomonarchy,aristocracy,anddemocracy.HebelievesthattheFrenchmonarchyisthebest,anddividesthemonarchyintodynastymonarchy(orauthenticmonarchy),lordmonarchy,andtyrantmonarchyaccordingtothewaythemonarchexercisespower.Thesignificanceofthisdivisionistoplacesecularpoliticalauthorityunderthenormsofdivinelawandnaturallaw.Itisbelievedthatonlyinthiswaycanthepeopletrulyenjoypropertyandfreedomandvoluntarilysubmittotheauthorityofthesovereign.

Sincethen,ThomasHobbscompletelygotridoftheconstraintsofethics,morality,andreligion.Basedonthesocialcontract,thegovernmentisdividedintoamonarchyandparliamentarygovernmentaccordingtotheownershipofsovereignty.Aristocraticgovernmentandademocraticgovernmentinwhichtheassemblyofallsubjectsisinpower.Hobbesgaveupthediscussionoftheidealpoliticalsystem.Hebelievedthattheselfishnessofhumannaturecouldnotmaketherulerabandonprivateinterestsandseekonlypublicinterests.Onlywhereprivateinterestsandpublicinterestsareunified,publicinterestscanbeenhanced.Hebelievesthatthiscanonlybeachievedbyanabsolutemonarchy.

Modern

Thetheoreticalandtechnicalstudyofpoliticalsystemsisasub-fieldofpoliticalscience,whichiscalledcomparativepolitics.(LichbachandZuckerman,1997)

Becausecomparativepoliticsisspecialized,scholarsstilllackanextensiveresearchonallformsofgovernment.Scholarsarealsodebatingwhetheritispossibletoestablishabroadclassificationsystemofregimes.Themosttraditionalandcommonlyusedmethodforgovernmentcomparisonisthedichotomy(forexample,democracyandautocracy,whichisnotatypology).Mostscholarstendtostudyandcomparetwoorthreedifferentformsofgovernment.Perhapstheonlyexceptionisthecomparisonofelectoralsystemsbyexperts.Theyusealotofdataandmathematicstocalculatewhichformofelectoralsystemcanproducethemoststable,lasting,andmostrepresentativegovernment.

Mostcomparisonsarestudiesofspecificsystems.Somepeoplestudytheconnectionbetweentheformoftheregimeanditslegitimacy(forexample,nationalism,economicsystem).OneofthemaindebatesincomparativepoliticsisthestabilityoftherivalrybetweenthepresidentandCongress.Anotherdebateiswhetherdemocracywillpromoteeconomicdevelopment.

Otherscholars,suchasexpertsininstitutionalframeworks,trytodesignnewformsofpoliticalpower.Forexample,ArendLijphart(ArendLijphart)designedanewsolutionsystemfordemocraticpolitics,calleddeliberativedemocracy.Thisformofdemocraticgovernmentcanbedividedintoseveralsocieties(culture,race,regime,ideology,etc.)Etc.),expressthepublicopinionofeachsocietyunderasinglegovernmenttoavoidconflictordivision.

Inshort,theformofclassifiedgovernmentisquitecomplicated.Eachpoliticalcommunityisuniqueandalloperateunderdifferentpowerstructuresandsocialstructures.Therefore,therearealmostasmanyformsofgovernmentastherearesocietiesintheworld.

Criteriaforclassification

Sinceancienttimes,peoplehavebeentryingtogeneralizeandclassifythecomplextypesofpolity,butresearchershavedifferentperspectivesandresearchmethodsonpolity,sotheyhavealwaysUnabletoreachanunanimousconclusion.

HerodotandAristotlearebothdividedaccordingtothenumberofrulers.Inmoderntimes,withtheincreasingcomplexityofthestatepolity,politicalscientistshavemademoredetailedclassificationsofthepolitybasedonthewayinwhichthehighestauthorityisgenerated,thetermofoffice,andthedegreeofintegrationbetweenthestateandthegovernment.MorerepresentativeisthepoliticalsystemclassificationstandardofAmericanpoliticalscientistJohnWilliamBergers:

Accordingtothedifferencebetweensovereignandgovernmentagencies,itisdividedintodirectgovernment(directdemocracy)andindirectgovernment(Indirectdemocracy)

Accordingtothewaytheheadofstateisproduced,itisdividedintohereditarygovernmentandelectivegovernment

Accordingtotherelationshipbetweentheexecutiveandthelegislature,itisdividedintocabinetsystemandpresidentialsystem

Accordingtothecentralizationanddecentralizationofgovernmentagencies,theyaredividedintounitarysystem(alsoknownascentralizedgovernment)andfederalsystem(alsoknownasdecentralizedgovernment).

SamuelHuntington,fromtheperspectiveofdevelopmentpolitics,firstfollowsThedegreeofpoliticalparticipationisdividedintotraditional,transitionalandmoderntypesfromlowtohigh,andthendividedintocivicandpraetorianbasedontheratiobetweeninstitutionalizationandpoliticalparticipation.Thecombinationofthetwoproducestheinstitutional,whig,andparticipatorycivicregimes;thePuliduoregimehasoligarchy,radical,andmasstypes.

Therearealsoscholarswhodividethepoliticalsystemintomobilized,theocratic,bureaucratic,andreconciledaccordingtothenatureofgovernance.Oraccordingtothedifferentdegreeofmodernization,itcanbedividedintoBritish-Americanstyle,ContinentalEuropeanstyle,pre-industrialorsemi-industrialstyle,andcentralizedstyle.

Traditionally,thesystemofgovernmentisgenerallydividedintomonarchyandrepublic.However,inmodernpoliticalsystems,themonarchyofsomecountrieshasbecomeaparliamentarymonarchy,andthemonarchhasonlyavacantposition;whileinothercountries,althoughitisarepublic,thepowerisconcentratedinthehandsofoneperson.Thismakestheonlydifferencebetweenthemonarchyandtherepubliciswhetherthereisamonarch,sothemethodofdividingthemonarchyandtherepublichasbeencriticizedmoreandmore.Therefore,modernWesternacademiccirclesusuallyfirstassumeacontinuum,oneendisapuredemocraticgovernment,suchasancientGreekcity-states,closetothisendaremostdevelopedcountries;theotherendisatotalitariangovernment(alsoknownasanall-powerfulgovernment),suchasNaziGermanyNearthisendaresocialistcountries,andtheactualpoliticalsystemsofothercountriesareinacertainpositioninthemiddleofthiscontinuum.

Inaddition,mostthirdworldcountriesareclassifiedasauthoritarianregimes.Thecriteriaforclassificationmainlyincludethedegreeofgovernmentcontroloversocialthoughtandeconomicactivities,whetherideologyispluralistic,andthescopeanddegreeofthepeople'sinfluenceongovernmentpolicies.Andbecauseofthestrongideologicalcolorof"democracy"and"totalitarian",inordertoenhancetheacademicsignificance,somescholarsalsoadvocatetheuseofpopulargovernmentorpolyarchyinsteadof"democraticgovernment."

Systemtypesaredividedaccordingtotheera:

Ancientsociety

Slaver-ownerrepublic,monarchy,feudalsystem

Medieval

Autocraticmonarchy,feudalsystem

Nowadays

Accordingtotheidentityofthosewhoholdpower,theycanbedividedintodictatorship,constitutionalmonarchy,andrepublic.Thedictatorshipreferstothedictatorshipofthemonarchy.Thecharacteristicisthatthecountryhasnoconstitution,andallaffairsaresubjecttotheking'sinstructions;theconstitutionalmonarchyandrepublicaredemocraticsystems,andthepowerisinthehandsofthepublic,buttheconstitutionalmonarchyhasanextrakingastheheadofstate,butnorealpower.

Accordingtothehighestauthorityinpower,itcanbedividedintoapresidentialsystem,asemi-presidentialsystem,andaparliamentarysystem.Theso-calledpresidentialsystemmeansthattheaffairsofthecountryareinthehandsofthepresident,andthepresidenthasrealpoweranddoesnotneedtoberesponsibletotheparliament;Inthepresidentialsystem,thepresidentholdsmostofthepowerofthecountry,buthemustbeaccountabletotheparliament.Intheparliamentarysystem,thepresidentistheheadofstate,butnottheheadofgovernment.

Governmentmethod

Thetypeofsystemisdividedaccordingtothenumberofrulingpeople.

Unmannedrule

Anarchy

Majorityrule

Democracy

MinorityRule

Oligarchy

One-ManRule

DictatorshipandConstitutionRuletheRepublic

Features

Thetypeofgovernmentadoptedbyacountryisrelatedtothestatusofvarioussocialstratainthecountry'spoliticaleconomy,andisalsorestrictedbythenaturalenvironment,historicaltraditions,andethniccompositionofthesociety.Itisalsoafeudalcountry,anditsgovernmentmaybeamonarchyorarepublic.Countriesofdifferentnaturesmayalsoadoptsimilarpoliticalsystems.Forexample,ancientGreecewasarepublic,andmanymoderncapitalistcountriesarealsorepublics.

Itisworthnotingthatevenanillegalgovernmentoragovernmentthatcannotsuccessfullyexercisepowerhasitsownpoliticalsystem.Regardlessofitsqualityofgovernance,afailedgovernmentisstillaformofgovernment.

Thefollowingarejustsomeofthedifferencespeopleusuallyhaveaboutthepoliticalsystem:

Traditional(tribalorfamily)ormodern(bureaucratic)

Singularity(NorthKorea))Ornon-unitary(Germany)dictatorship(DemocraticRepublicoftheCongo)ordemocracy(Belgium)

Elections(UnitedStates),noelections(NorthKorea),hereditary(Brunei),electoralmonarchy(sacredRomanEmpire)Direct(Mexico)orindirectelections(ElectoralCollegeintheUnitedStates)

Separatedstateandchurch(EuropeanUnion)orintegratedstateandchurch(Iran)

SeparatedpowerStructure(UK)orstructurewithoutpowerdivision(PeruunderFujimori)

Parliamentarysystem(Greece),presidentialsystem(U.S.),constitutionalmonarchy(U.K.)Thenumberofpeopleinpower(7inSwitzerland,2inFrance,1intheUnitedStates)

Thestructureoflegislativepower(dictatorship,unicameral,bicameral)ThenumberofcoalitionorpartymembersintheparliamentFederation(Argentina)orunity(France)

Therulesoftheelectoralsystem:Theonewhogetsthemostvoteswins-thefirstpersontocrossthethreshold(U.S.)

Majority(theonewhogets50%+1voteswins)-therun-offelection(Argentina)

Absolutemajority(morethan60%)(theUSSenate’sdiscussionterminationsystem)

Allagree-(allvoteswin)(thepracticeinsomecompanies)

Typeofeconomicsystem

Universalideologyandculture

Strongsystemoperationcapability(U.S.)orweaksystemoperationcapability(Iraq)

Legal(SouthAfrica)orillegal(formerCommunistRomania)

actual(effectivecontrol)orlegal(nominalgovernmentPower)

Sovereign(U.S.),semi-sovereign(PuertoRico),non-sovereign(Chechnya)

Otherissues

OtherempiricalandconceptualTheproblem

Onthesurface,itdoesnotseemtobedifficulttoidentifythesystemofagovernment.MostpeoplewouldsaythattheUnitedStatesisademocraticcountrywhiletheformerSovietUnionisanautocraticcountry.However,asKopsteinandLichbach(April2005)said,itisquitedifficulttodefinearegime.Itisevenmoredifficulttoidentifythenecessaryconditionsforacertainformofgovernment."Identifyingtheformofacountry'sgovernment"isdifferentfrom"recognizingthenecessaryconditionsforitsform."Forexample,ifyouwanttodefinethenecessaryconditionsofdemocracy,manypeoplemaysay"election",butinfactcitizensoftheformerSovietUnionandtheUnitedStatescanvotefortheirlocaladministrativeofficials.Theproblemwiththiscomparisonisthatmostpeoplewillnotacceptitsstandard,becauseitistoofarfromwhattheyperceive,andmostpeoplewillnotregardtheformerSovietUnionasthesamedemocracyastheUnitedStates.Thecountry,therefore,theuseofthiscomparativeconceptisgreatlyreduced.

Thereareseveralmethodsthatmayhelpeliminatethisproblemofidentifyingtheformofnationalgovernmentandthenecessaryconditionsforconfirmingtheform.Onewayistoconsiderthesufficientandnecessaryfeaturesofaformofgovernment.SowhendealingwithissuessuchastheaboveandtheSovietUnion,wecansaythat"electionsarenecessary,butelectionsalonedonotmeandemocracy"or"suchelectionsarenotconstitutedbydemocracy."

Anotherpossiblemethodistofurtherexplainthenatureoftheconditionsofeachregime.IntheexampleoftheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnion,bothcountrieshaveelections,butthedifferencebetweenthetworegimesisthattheSovietUnionimplementsoneparty.Thedictatorship,untilGorbachevcametopower,allparties(andcandidates)otherthantheCommunistPartyoftheSovietUnionwereillegal.Incontrast,theUnitedStateshasadefinitetwo-partysystem,andpoliticalpartiesneedtobecontrolledbythegovernment,buttheirexistenceisnotprohibited.Inaddition,thetwo-partysystemstructurethatemergedintheUnitedStatesisnaturallyduetotheshortcomingsofthemulti-partysystem.Yes,itisnotstipulatedbytheoriginalsystem,andsomesmallpartieswithlimitedinfluence(suchastheLiberalPartyoftheUnitedStates)stillexist.

Systemsthatareusuallyregardedasrepresentativegovernment(suchasCanada,India,andtheUnitedStates)mayalsoincludesomedirectdemocraticmethodssuchasreferendums,anddeliberativedemocracythatundergoesextensiveproceduresforconstitutionalamendments.democracy).Anotherproblemisthatsomepoliticalsystemsarecreatedbysocialoreconomicmovements,andthesemovementswillformspecificpoliticalpartiestogovernwhentheymature.Thesemovementscanalsobeseenasformsofgovernment.Someexamplesinclude:

Perhapsthemostnotableexampleisthecommunistmovement.Inthecaseofcommunism,italsoshowsthatthepoliticalsystemscreatedbythesemovementsmaybedifferentfromtheoriginalsocialandeconomicideologiesfromwhichtheyoriginated.Thismaycausetheoriginalideologicalsupporterstoopposethepoliticalsystemcreatedbythosemovements.Forexample,somepeoplewhoadvertisedTrotskyismorcommunismoftenopposedthecommunistcountriesofthe20thcentury.Islamismisoftencitedasamovementinvolvingformsofgovernment.ManycountriesintheIslamicworlddouseIslamastheircountryname.However,thesegovernmentsactuallyusedifferentmechanismsofpower(suchasborrowingandresortingtonationalism).

Thismeansthatnosingleformofgovernmentcanbedefinedasan"Islamic"government.Therefore,Islamisactuallyaloosepoliticalpracticegroupinpoliticalmovement,ratherthanacompletepoliticalmovement.Thebasicprinciplesofmanyotherpeople'smovementsalsoheavilyinvolvetheformofgovernment.Thesemovementssupportspecificformsofgovernmentandwillbeimplementedaftertheygainpower.Forexample,Bioregionaldemocracyistheconceptadvocatedbythepursuitofenvironmentallyfriendlygreenpolitics.

Remarksonevaluatingthepoliticalsystem

"Youonlyknowifyourshoesfityourfeetandwearthem".ThisistheremarksmadebyPresidentXiJinpingduringhisvisittoRussia.AsPresidentXisaid,thepoliticalsystemanddevelopmentpathofacountryonlyhasthemostvoiceandtherighttospeakoutforitsownpeople.Itisanextremelyirresponsibleactforothercountriesorindividualstomakegroundlessaccusationsonthesidelines.

Statestructure

Theformofstatestructureisthepowerrelationshipbetweenacountry'slocalityandthecentralgovernment,aswellastheoverallandpartialpower.Generallydividedintounitarysystemandcompoundsystem.Amongthem,thecompoundsystemincludesthefederalsystem,theconfederatesystem,themonarchyandthepoliticalunion.

Nameofthesystem

Therepublicreferstothestaterepresentativeofficeandtheheadofstateelectedbyelection.Thereare129republicsintheworldtoday,suchastheFrenchRepublic.

Thekingdomisaconstitutionalmonarchywiththekingastheheadofstate.

Todaythereare16kingdomsintheworld.Theduchyisaformofconstitutionalmonarchy.SuchasthePrincipalityofAndorra.

ThetitleofthemonarchoftheGrandDuchyis"TheGrandDuke",andthecountrywheretheGrandDukecontrolsthepowerofthecountry,suchastheGrandDuchyofLuxembourg.

Federationisaunifiedcountrycomposedofseveralmembers,suchastheSwissConfederation.Somecountriescallitthe"Alliance",suchastheComorosUnion.

TheUnitedStatesisaformoffederalism.LiketheUnitedStatesofAmerica,theUnitedStatesofMexico,etc.

Themasscountry,acountrythatprohibitsallpartyactivitiesanddoesnothaveaparty.SuchastheGreatLibyanArabPeople’sSocialistMassState.

Emirate,acountrywithtribalchiefsastheheadofstate.LiketheUnitedArabEmiratesandsoon.

ThePapalStateisacountrywherethePopeistheheadofstate.LiketheVatican,thereisonlyonecountryintheworldthatdoesthis.

TheSultanate,thecountrywhereallexecutionrightsbelongtoSudan.SuchastheSultanateofOman.

ThePeople’sRepublicisapoliticalsystemofsocialistcountriessuchasthePeople’sRepublicofChina,NorthKorea,andLaos.