Non-tariff barriers

Mainforms

Non-tariffbarriershavevariousformsandaremorehidden.AccordingtothepracticeoftheUS,EUandotherWTOmembers’tradebarrierinvestigations,non-tariffbarriersaremainlymanifestedinthefollowing12forms:

1.Customsbarriers

Customsbarriers-Customs&AdministrativeEntryProceduresbarrierstocustomsclearanceareusuallymanifestedinthefactthattherelevantauthoritiesoftheimportingcountryrequireimporterstoprovideverycomplicatedordifficulttoobtaininformation,oreventradesecrets,whenhandlingcustomsclearanceprocedures,therebyincreasingthecostofimportedproductsandaffectingtheirsmoothentryintoimports.Domesticmarket;customsclearanceproceduresaretime-consumingandlengthy,makingseasonalimportedproducts(suchasseasonalclothing,agriculturalproducts,etc.)losetradeopportunities;imposingunreasonablecustomsdutiesonimportedproducts.

2.IntellectualPropertyMeasures

IntellectualPropertyRightMeasures”Inpractice,someWTOmembersdonotcomplywiththeTRIPSAgreementontrade-relatedintellectualpropertymeasuresandconstituteThepracticeoftradebarriersismainlymanifestedinthefollowingaspects:

①Imperfectlegislation,lackoflegalprovisionsforcertainintellectualpropertyrightsprotectedbytheTRIPsAgreement,orviolationsofthebasicprinciplesoftheTRIPsAgreement.

②Theadministrativelawenforcementproceduresarecumbersome,protractedorexpensive.

③Weakjudicialreliefmeasures,ordeprivethepartiesoftherighttorequestjudicialreview,andfailtoprovideadequateprotectionofintellectualpropertyrights.

3.Importbans

ImportbansareimplementedbeyondtherelevantexceptionclausesofWTOrules(suchasgeneralexceptionsspecifiedinArticle20ofGATT,safetyexceptionsspecifiedinArticle21,etc.)Measurestorestrictorprohibitimports.

4.Importlicense

Importlicenseisdividedintoautomaticlicenseandnon-automaticlicense.Automaticlicensereferstothelicensethatcanbeobtainedwithoutgoingthroughtheapprovalprocess;non-automaticlicensereferstothelicensethatmustbeobtainedthroughtheapprovalprocess,whichcanbedividedintolicenseswithquantitativerestrictions(usuallyimportquotamanagement)andlicenseswithoutquantitativerestrictions(Usuallyasingleimportlicensemanagement).Tradebarriersinthemanagementofimportquotasareoftenmanifestedas:unreasonablequotas;unreasonablequotadistributionstandardsorunfairdistribution.Inasingleimportlicensemanagement,tradebarriersaremainlymanifestedas:managementproceduresarenottransparent;proceduresforreviewandissuanceoflicensesaretoocomplicatedorrequireunnecessarydocuments;approvaltimeistoolong,etc.

5.TechnicalTradeBarriers

TechnicalTradeBarriers-Standards(TechnicalTradeBarriers)AccordingtotherelevantprovisionsoftheWTO"TechnicalTradeBarriersAgreement"(hereinafterreferredtoas"TBTAgreement"),theWTOMembershavetherighttoformulateandimplementtechnicalregulationsandstandardsdesignedtoprotectnationalorregionalsecurityinterests,protectthelifeorhealthofhumans,animalsorplants,protecttheenvironment,preventfraud,andensurethequalityofexportedproducts,anddeterminewhetherproductscomplywiththesetechnologies.Conformityassessmentproceduresforregulationsandstandards.Theabove-mentionedmeasuresarecollectivelyreferredtoasTBTmeasures,whichcanbedividedintothreecategories,namely,technicalregulations,standardsandconformityassessmentprocedures.

Technicalregulations:refertodocumentsthatstipulatemandatoryproductcharacteristicsorrelatedprocessesandproductionmethods(includingapplicablemanagementregulations),aswellasspecificterms,symbols,Documentsrequiredforpackaging,markingorlabeling.Thesedocumentscanbenationallaws,regulations,andrules,orothernormativedocuments,aswellastechnicalspecifications,guidelines,guidelines,etc.,formulatedbynon-governmentalorganizationsauthorizedbythegovernment.Technicalregulationshaveamandatoryfeature,thatis,onlyproductsthatmeettherequirementsofthetechnicalregulationscanbesoldorimported.Forexample,acountrypromulgatedtechnicalregulationsthatrequirelightersbelowacertainpricetobeequippedwithdevicesthatpreventchildrenfromopening.Thismethodoflinkingcommoditypriceswithtechnicalstandardslacksscientificityandrationality,andthusconstitutesatradebarrier.

Standard:Referstotherules,guidelinesorcharacteristicsofproductsorrelatedprocessesandproductionmethodsthatareapprovedbyrecognizedinstitutions,arenotenforced,andareforgeneralorrepeateduse.Thedocumentmayalsoincludespecificterminology,symbols,packaging,marking,orlabelingrequirementsthatarespecificallyapplicabletotheproduct,process,orproductionmethod.Accordingtothe"TBTAgreement",thestandardisvoluntary.However,itshouldbenotedthatinpractice,somecountriesdividestandardsintomandatorystandardsandrecommendedstandards,andtheirmandatorystandardshavethenatureoftechnicalregulations.Somecountries,especiallysomedevelopedcountries,usetheireconomicandtechnologicaladvantagestousestandardsasanimportantmeansofbuildingtradebarrierstorestrictimportsofproductsfromothertradingpartners,especiallydevelopingcountries.Forexample,somecountrieshavesetstrictstandardsthataredifficultforimportedproductstomeet,andthusaffectconsumerpreferences,whichinfactconstitutesanobstacletoimportedproducts.

Conformityassessmentprocedure:referstoanyprocedureuseddirectlyorindirectlytodeterminewhethertherelevantrequirementsintechnicalregulationsorstandardsaremet.Theconformityassessmentproceduresstipulatedinthe"TBTAgreement"include:sampling,testingandinspectionprocedures;conformityassessment,verificationandconformityassuranceprocedures;registration,accreditationandapprovalandtheircombinations.Inpractice,opaqueordiscriminatoryconformityassessmentproceduresoftenconstituteobstaclestoimportedproducts.Forexample,accordingtothe"TBTAgreement",beforeamemberissuestechnicalregulationsorconformityassessmentproceduresthatdonothaveinternationalstandardsorareinconsistentwithinternationalstandardsandmayhaveasignificantimpactonthetradeofothermembers,theyneedtonotifytheWTO/TBTcommitteeinadvanceandgivethemtoothermembersSetacertaintimeforcommentsandconsidertheirreasonableopinionsasmuchaspossible.However,somemembersissueandimplementrelevanttechnicalregulations,standardsorconformityassessmentprocedureswithoutconsultingothermembers,sothatothermembersarereturnedwithouttheirknowledgebecausetheirexportedproductsdonotcomplywiththerelevantregulationsoftheimportingcountry.,Detained,reducedprice,ordestroyed.ThispracticeviolatedthetransparencyprincipleoftheTBTAgreement,seriouslyaffectedtheexporttradeofothermembers,andconstitutedatradebarrier.Somemembershaveunreasonablydelayedinthespecificproceduresofsampling,testingandinspection,whichconstitutedunreasonablerestrictionsonimportedproducts.

The"TBTAgreement"requiresWTOmemberstofollowthefollowingprincipleswhenformulatingandimplementingTBTmeasuressuchastechnicalregulations,standardsandconformityassessmentprocedures:Theprincipleofavoidingunnecessaryobstaclestotrade(minimalimpactontradePrinciples),non-discriminationprinciples(most-favoured-nationtreatmentprinciplesandnationaltreatmentprinciples),principlesofharmonizationwithinternationalstandards,principlesofequivalenceoftechnicalregulations,principlesofmutualrecognitionofconformityassessmentprocedures,principlesoftransparency,etc.However,inpractice,somecountries(regions)havenotstrictlyabidedbytheaboveprinciplesandformulatedcomplex,demanding,andchangeableTBTmeasurestorestrictproductsfromothercountries(regions)fromenteringtheirmarkets.Forexample,acountry’stechnicalrequirementsforimportedproductsarehigherthanthatofthecountry’sproducts,orthetechnicalrequirementsforproductsimportedfromaspecificcountryarehigherthansimilarproductsimportedfromothercountries,whichviolatesthenon-discriminationprincipleoftheTBTAgreement.Therefore,alltechnicalregulations,standardsandconformityassessmentproceduresformulatedandimplementedinviolationoftherelevantprinciplesoftheTBTAgreementconstitutetechnicalbarrierstotrade.

6.SanitaryandPhytosanitaryMeasures

SanitaryandPhytosanitaryMeasures-Standards(GovernmentAcceptance&TestingMethodsandStandards)"AccordingtotheWTOAgreementontheImplementationofSanitaryandPhytosanitaryMeasures(Followingtherelevantprovisionsofthe"SPSAgreement"),WTOmembershavetherighttotakethefollowingmeasurestoprotectthelifeandhealthofhumans,animalsandplants:

①ProtectthelifeorhealthofanimalsorplantsintheterritoriesofWTOmembersAvoidtherisksofpestsordiseases,theintroduction,colonizationorspreadofdiseasedorganismsorpathogenicorganisms;

②ProtectthelivesorhealthofhumansoranimalsintheterritoriesofWTOmembersfromfood,Beverageorfeedadditives,pollutants,toxinsorpathogenicorganisms;

③ProtecthumanlifeorhealthintheterritoriesofWTOmembersfromdiseasescarriedbyanimals,plants,oranimalandplantproductsOrtheriskscausedbytheintroduction,establishmentorspreadofpests;

④Preventorcontrolotherdamagescausedbytheintroduction,establishmentorspreadofpestsintheterritoriesofWTOmembers.

Theabove-mentionedmeasuresarecollectivelyreferredtoasSPSmeasures,whichspecificallyinclude:allrelevantlaws,decrees,regulations,requirementsandprocedures,especiallyfinalproductstandards;proceduresandproductionmethods;inspection,quarantine,inspection,certificationandApprovalprocedures;variousquarantinetreatments,includingrequirementsrelatedtothetransportationofanimalsorplantsorrelatedtothesubstancesneededtomaintainthesurvivalofanimalsandplantsduringtransportation;regulationsonstatisticalmethods,samplingproceduresandriskassessmentmethods;andfoodsafetyDirectlyrelatedtopackagingandlabelingrequirements.

Accordingtothe"SPSAgreement",WTOmembersmustfollowtheprinciplesofscientificity,equivalence,principlesofharmonizationwithinternationalstandards,transparency,consistencyofSPSmeasures,andtradeTheprincipleofleastimpact,theprincipleofregionalizationofanimalandplantepidemics,etc.Therefore,SPSmeasuresthatlackscientificbasisanddonotcomplywiththeaboveprinciplesconstitutetradebarriers.

Forexample,acountryonlybanstheimportofsuchproductsfromthatcountryonthegroundsofdetectingpollutantsthatdonotcomplywiththe"SPSAgreement"inindividualbatchesofproductsfromanothercountry,whichviolatesTheimplementationofSPSmeasuresinthe"SPSAgreement"shouldbebasedontheprincipleofnecessityandminimalimpactontrade,whichconstitutesatradebarrier;acountry,basedontheoccurrenceofanimalandplantepidemicsinindividualfarmsorareasinanothercountry,completelyprohibitsallimportsfromthatcountryAnimals,plantsandtheirproductsviolatedtheregionalizationprinciplesoftheSPSAgreementandconstitutedadisguisedrestrictionontrade;acountry’squarantinerequirementsforimportedsalmonarestricterthanthequarantinerequirementsforthecountry’sproducts,ormaybestricterthanimportsThequarantinerequirementsofotherfishinfectedwiththesamediseaseassalmon,therebyrestrictingorprohibitingtheimportofsalmon,violatedtheprincipleofconsistencyofthe"SPSAgreement"andconstitutedatradebarrier.

7.Traderemedymeasures

Traderemedymeasuresincludeanti-dumping,countervailingandsafeguardmeasuresagainstimportedproducts.Unreasonableuseorabuseoftheseremedieswillcreatetradebarrierstoimportedproducts.

Inanti-dumpingandanti-subsidyinvestigations,somecountriesoftendiscriminateagainstChineseproductsbasedontheso-called"non-marketeconomy"issuesintheinvestigationanddeterminationofdumpingandsubsidies.Totakeamoreunreasonableapproach.Inanti-dumpinginvestigations,importingcountriescanalsotakeanti-circumventionandanti-absorptionmeasures;ifthesemeasuresareabused,theywillalsoconstituteunreasonableobstaclestoimportedproducts.

①Anti-circumvention.Theso-calledcircumventionreferstoanexportproductbeingimplementedbyanothercountry'santi-dumpingmeasures,theexporterthroughvariousmeanstoreduceoravoidtheexportproductbeingleviedanti-dumpingdutiesorbeingsubjecttootherformsofanti-dumpingmeasures;anti-circumventionisReferstomeasurestakenbyimportingcountriestopreventforeignexportersfromevadinganti-dumpingmeasures.

②Anti-absorption.Theso-calledabsorptionmeansthatwhentheimportingcountryhasimposedanti-dumpingdutiesonanimportedproduct,theexporteradoptsthemethodofunder-reportingtheexportpricetoreducetheburdenoftheimporterduetotheanti-dumpingduty,therebyreducingtheanti-dumpingdutyontheimportoftheproduct.Theimpactofthecountry’smarketshare.Inthiscase,theimportingcountrycanconductananti-absorptioninvestigation,thatis,iftheimportingcountryfindsthattheanti-dumpingmeasureshavenothadtheexpectedimpactonthesellingpriceofthedumpedproduct,itcanre-investigatetodetermineanewdumpingmarginandultimatelyincreasetheanti-dumpingdutyrate.

Whenacountryadoptsanti-circumventionandanti-absorptioninvestigations,ifthestandardsadoptedindeterminingtheoriginofimportedproductsandexportpricesarenotobjectiveandfair,itwillleadtoinappropriateorunreasonableanti-circumvention,Anti-absorptionmeasurestorestricttheimportofproducts,anti-circumventionandanti-absorptionmeasuresmayactastradebarriers.Forexample,aWTOmemberhasconductedunreasonableanti-dumping,anti-circumvention,andanti-absorptioninvestigationsonglufosinateoriginatinginChina,andruledthata24%anti-dumpingdutywasimposedintheanti-dumpinginvestigation,andthentheanti-dumpinginvestigationThetaxrateincreasedto48%,forcingourproductstowithdrawfromthemembermarket.

Intheinvestigationofsafeguardmeasures,somecountriesoftenhavegreaterarbitrarinessinthedeterminationofissuessuchasimportgrowthandindustrialdamage,andthenbasedonthisarbitrarilydeterminationtoimposenoReasonablesafeguards.

8.Discriminationonimportedproducts

Discriminationonimportedproductsingovernmentprocurementcanbedividedintotwosituations:

①SignatoriesoftheWTO"GovernmentProcurementAgreement"Discriminatorymeasuresagainstimportedproductsadoptedduringtheperiod.The"GovernmentProcurementAgreement"isaplurilateralagreement,thatis,onlythemembersthathavesignedtheagreementareboundbytherulesoftheagreement.Theagreementstipulatesthatthesignatoriesoftheagreementmustmaintaintransparencyingovernmentprocurementandgiveothermembersequaltreatmentinparticipatingingovernmentprocurement.Inpractice,someWTOmembersoftenimpedethefairparticipationofforeignproductsinprocurementthroughlesstransparentprocurementprocedures.Forexample,alargenumberoflawsinacertaincountryprovidefortheimplementationofthedomesticpriorityprincipleingovernmentprocurement;certainspecialpreferentialtreatmentsfortheprocurementofproductsfromthatcountry;complicatedprocurementproceduresareformulatedtopreventforeignproductsfromparticipatinginprocurementbiddingfairly;Byarbitrarilydeprivingforeignproductsoftheopportunitytoparticipateinprocurement.

②Discriminatorymeasuresagainstimportedproductstakenbetweensignatoriesofnon-WTO"GovernmentProcurementAgreement".Inareaswherecountriesvoluntarilyopentheirgovernmentprocurementtoforeigncountries,therewillalsobediscriminationagainstimportedproducts.Inpractice,thesediscriminatorymeasuresaremainlymanifestedasaviolationofmost-favored-nationtreatmentanddifferentialtreatmentofproductsfromdifferentcountries,thusconstitutingdiscriminationagainstproductsofaspecificcountry.

9.Exportrestrictions

Thespecificmanifestationsare:

①Passtheextraterritorialityclausesinthecountry’sdomesticlegislationtorestrictorObstructthetradebetweenothercountriesandthirdcountries,thuscreatingatradebarrierforothercountries’productstoexporttothatcountryorthethirdcountry’smarket.Forexample,inaccordancewithitsexportmanagementlegislation,acountryhasestablishedacompletesetofexportcontrolsystemsfordual-useproductsandrestrictscompaniesfromothercountriesfromsellingsuchproductstodestinationsthatarenotauthorized.Sanctionsagainstcompaniesinothercountriesthatviolatethecountry’sexportcontrollawsandregulations,restrictexportsofsuchcompaniestospecificthirdcountries,andevenprohibittheimportofallproductsofsuchcompanies.

②Thearbitraryimplementationofexportrestrictionsonsomerawmaterialsandsemi-manufacturedproductshasrestrictedtheproductionandexportofrelatedmanufacturedproductsfromimportingcountriesoftheserawmaterialsandsemi-finishedproducts.

10.Subsidies

TheWTO"AgreementonSubsidiesandCountervailingMeasures"establishesrelativelystrictrestrictionsontheuseofsubsidiesbymembers,andexportsubsidiesandimportsubstitutionsubsidiesareexplicitlyprohibited.category.However,inpractice,someWTOmembersstillusevariousformsofexportsubsidiestostimulateexports,severelydistortingtrade.

Intermsofagriculturalsubsidies,theWTO’s"AgriculturalAgreement"haslaiddownbasicrulesforagriculturaldomesticsupportandexportsubsidies.Ifamember’sdomesticsupportorexportsubsidiesforagriculturalproductsdonotcomplywiththeprovisionsofthe"AgriculturalAgreement",itconstitutesatradebarriertoimportedagriculturalproducts.

Thespecificconditionsofagriculturalsubsidiesare:

①Domesticsupport.Accordingtothetradedistortiondegreeofvariousdomesticsupportmeasures,the"AgricultureAgreement"dividesthemintothreecategories,namely"greenbox"measures,"bluebox"measuresand"yellowbox"measures.The“greenbox”measuresrefertogovernmentserviceplansprovidedbythegovernment,thecostsofwhicharenotpassedontoconsumers,andthathavenopricesupportforproducers.Theymainlyincludegeneralgovernmentservicesandpublicreservesubsidiesforfoodsecuritypurposes.Andothermeasures.Thesemeasureswillhavenooronlyminordistortingeffectsonagriculturaltrade,andmembersdonothavetoundertakerestraintandreductionobligations."Bluebox"measuresrefertosubsidiesbasedonafixedareaandoutput(suchasfallowsubsidies),subsidiesbasedon85%orlessofthebaseproductionlevel,andsubsidiesbasedonafixednumberoflivestock.Thesesubsidiesareusuallypartoftheagriculturalproductionrestrictionplan,andthemembersarenotrequiredtoundertakereductionobligations.The"yellowbox"measuresrefertothegovernment'sdirectpriceinterventionandsubsidiesforagriculturalproducts,includingsubsidiesforagriculturalinputssuchasseeds,fertilizers,andirrigation,andsubsidiesforagriculturalproductmarketingloans.The"yellowbox"measuresdistortthetradeofagriculturalproducts,andthemembersmustundertaketheobligationofrestraintandreduction.The"AgriculturalAgreement"requiresallmemberstousethecomprehensivesupportamounttocalculatethemonetaryvalueoftheir"yellowbox"measures,andusethisasayardsticktograduallyreduceit.Butfordevelopingcountries,some"yellowbox"measuresarealsoincludedinthescopeofexemptionfromreduction,mainlyincludingagriculturalinvestmentsubsidies,agriculturalinputsubsidiesprovidedtoproducersinlow-incomeorresource-poorareas,andtoencourageproducersnottoproduceSupportprovidedbyillegalnarcoticcrops,etc.Inpractice,somecountrieshavefailedtograduallyreducethe"yellowbox"measuresinaccordancewiththerules,butstillmaintainarelativelyhighlevelofsubsidies,whichconstitutestradebarriers.

②Exportsubsidies.The"AgricultureAgreement"stipulatesthattheexportsubsidiesshouldbegraduallyreducedduringtheimplementationperiodbasedontheagriculturalexportsubsidiesinthebaseperiodofthereduction;the"AgricultureAgreement"alsospecifiesthescopeofexportsubsidiesincludedinthereductioncommitmentsandcontrolstheexpansionofsubsidies.Andothercontent.However,somecountrieshavefailedtostrictlyabidebytherelevantprovisionsofthe"AgriculturalAgreement."Forexample,acountrymaintainsalargenumberofsubsidiesinthisareaaccordingtoits"DairyProductsExportEncouragementProgram",whichnotonlyhinderstheimportofsimilarproductsfromothercountries,butalsoweakensthecompetitivenessofsimilarproductsfromothercountriesinthird-countrymarketsandconstitutesatradebarrier.

11.Tradeinservices

Inpractice,barriersthathinderforeignservicesorserviceprovidersfromenteringthecountry’smarketmayinclude:

①AccessconditionsToostrictorlackoftransparency.

②Longapprovalprocess.

③Setvariousformsofrestrictionsontheserviceoperationsofserviceproviders,orincreasetheiroperationalburdens.

④Unfaircompetitionfacedbyforeignserviceproviders.

12.Otherbarriers

Inpractice,thereareotherbarriersthataredifficulttobeclassifiedintotheabove-mentionedtradebarriers.

Features

Comparedwithtariffmeasures,non-tariffmeasuresmainlyhavethefollowingthreeobviouscharacteristics:

Firstofall,non-tariffmeasureshavegreateradvantagesthantariffs.Flexibilityandpertinence.Theformulationoftariffsoftenrequirescertainlegislativeprocedures,adjustmentsorchangestotaxrates,andcertainlegalproceduresandformalities.Therefore,tariffshaveacertaincontinuity.Theformulationandimplementationofnon-tariffmeasuresusuallyadoptadministrativeprocedures,whicharerelativelyquicktoformulateandsimple.Thecorrespondingimportrestrictionmeasurescanbetakenorreplacedatanytimeforacertaincountryandacertaincommodity,soastoachievetheimportrestrictionquickly.Purpose.

Secondly,theprotectiveeffectofnon-tariffmeasuresisstrongerandmoredirectthanthatoftariffs.Tariffmeasuresincreasethecostandpriceofgoodsbyimposingtariffs,therebyweakeningtheircompetitiveness.Therefore,theirprotectiveeffectsareindirect.Somenon-tariffmeasures,suchasimportquotas,pre-limitthequantityandamountofimports.Ifthequotaisexceeded,importswillbedirectlybanned,sothatthegoalsthataredifficulttoachievebytariffmeasurescanbeachievedquicklyanddirectly.

Finally,non-tariffmeasuresaremorecovertanddiscriminatorythantariffs.Tariffmeasures,includingtaxratedeterminationandcollectionmethodsaretransparent,andexporterscanobtainrelevantinformationrelativelyeasily.Inaddition,tariffmeasuresarealsolessdiscriminatory,andtheyareoftenrestrictedbybilateralrelationsandinternationalmultilateraltradeagreements.However,somenon-tariffmeasuresareoftenpoorlytransparent,concealed,andhighlytargeted,whichmakesiteasytoimposedifferentialtreatmentonothercountries.

Impact

Non-tariffbarriershavemanynamesandcoverawiderange.Therefore,itsimpactoninternationaltradeandrelatedimportandexportcountriesisdifficulttoestimate,butitcanbeseenfromthefollowingaspectsLook:

(1)Impactonthedevelopmentofinternationaltrade

Non-tariffbarriersplayagreatroleinhinderingthedevelopmentofinternationaltrade.Whenotherconditionsremainunchanged,thedegreeofstrengtheningofworldwidenon-tariffbarriersisinverselyproportionaltothegrowthrateofinternationaltrade.Forexample,fromthe1950stotheearly1970saftertheSecondWorldWar,tariffsdroppedsignificantly.Atthesametime,developedcountriesalsogreatlyrelaxedandabolishednon-tariffmeasuressuchasimportquantityrestrictions.Promotingthedevelopmentofinternationaltrade,from1950to1973,theaveragegrowthrateofworldtradevolumereached7.2%.Onthecontrary,afterthemid-1970s,manycountriesadoptedformalnon-tariffbarriermeasures,whichaffectedthedevelopmentofinternationaltrade.From1973to1979,theworldtradevolumegrewatanaverageannualrateof4.5%,andfrom1980to1985,Anddroppedtoabout3%.

(2)ImpactonCommodityStructureandGeographicalDirection

Non-tariffbarriersreturnToacertainextent,itaffectsthechangeratioofinternationaltradecommoditystructureandgeographicdirection.AfterWorldWarII,thegeneraltrendofproductsaffectedbynon-tariffbarriersis:agriculturalproducttradeisaffectedmorethanindustrialproducts,labor-intensiveproducttradeisaffectedmorethantechnology-intensiveproducts,andtheaffectedcountriesaredevelopingcountriesandTherearemoresocialistcountriesthandevelopedcountries,andthedegreeismoreserious.Thesephenomenahaveseriouslyaffectedthechangesinthestructureandgeographicdirectionofinternationaltradecommodities,andhavecausedmajordamagetothedevelopmentofforeigntradeindevelopingcountriesandsocialistcountries.

(3)Impactonimportingcountries

Forimportingcountries,tariffbarrierscanrestrictimportsandprotectthecountry’smarketandproduction,butItwillalsocausepricesinthedomesticmarketoftheimportingcountrytorise.Forexample,iftheimportingcountryadoptsdirectimportquantityrestrictionmeasures,nomatterhowforeignpricesriseorfall,andnomatterhowlargethedomesticdemandis,theywillnotincreaseimports.Theincreaseindomesticpricesprotectstheproductionofsimilarproductsintheimportingcountry,whichcanplayaroleinprotectingandpromotingtheproductionanddevelopmentofrelatedproductsinthecountryundercertainconditions.

However,thestrengtheningofnon-tariffbarrierswillcauseconsumersinimportingcountriestopayahugeprice,andtheywillhavetopaymoremoneytobuythegoodstheyneed,andthecostandexportpriceofdomesticexportswillalsoTheincreaseinpricesduetorisingpricesweakensthecompetitivenessofexportcommodities.Inordertoincreaseexports,thegovernmentcanonlyadoptmeasuressuchasexportsubsidies,therebyincreasingnationalbudgetexpendituresandincreasingthetaxburdenofthepeople.

(4)ImpactonExportCountryImpact

Importingcountriesstrengthennon-tariffbarriermeasuresInparticular,theimplementationofdirectimportquantityrestrictionsandafixedimportquantitywillseverelyaffecttheexportvolumeandpricesofexportingcountries,resultinginthegrowthrateofexportcommoditiesorthereductionofexportquantitiesandthedeclineofexportprices.Generallyspeaking,ifthesupplyelasticityoftheexportgoodsoftheexportingcountryisgreater,thepricedropofthesegoodscausedbythenon-tariffbarriersoftheimportingcountrywillbesmaller;onthecontrary,iftheexportingcountry’sexportgoodshaveahigherelasticityofsupplyIfitissmaller,thepriceofthesecommoditieswillbeaffectedbythenon-tariffbarriersoftheimportingcountryandthepricedropwillbegreater.Sincemostofthedevelopingcountrieshaverelativelysmallsupplyelasticityofexportproducts,thestrengtheningofglobalnon-tariffbarriershasseverelydamageddevelopingcountries.

Developmenttrend

Sincethe1990s,withtheunremittingeffortsoftheWTOandvariouscountries’bilateralandmultilateraltradenegotiations,traditionalnon-tariffbarrierssuchasquotasandimportlicensesHowever,atthesametime,thefieldofnon-tariffbarriershasshownanewdevelopmenttrend,whichisprominentlymanifestedin:(1)Anti-dumpingmeasurescontinuetoincrease

Theoriginalpurposewastoresistunfairpracticesininternationaltradeandeliminatepricediscrimination.However,somecountriesuseitasameansofstrategiccompetitiontocombatcompetitorsandpreventtheirpowerfulweaponsfrombeingused,thusgivingthemastrongtradeprotectioncolor.Judgingfromitsdevelopmenttrend,itwillbecomethedominantinternationaltradebarrierinthe21stcentury.Asfarastheimplementationofanti-dumpingisconcerned,Chinaisstillthemostaffectedcountry.Accordingtostatistics,ofthe101newanti-dumpingcasesfiledfromJanuarytoJune2004,30wereforChineseproducts,anincreaseof18casesoverthesameperiodin2003.

(2)Therapiddevelopmentoftechnicalbarrierstotrade(TBT)

AstheWTOagreementontechnicalbarriersdoesnotdenytherationalityandnecessityoftheexistenceofTBT,itallowscountriestoadapttotheirowncharacteristicsTheformulationoftechnicalstandardsthataredifferentfromthoseofothercountrieshasalloweddevelopedcountriestousethislegalbasistoformulateavarietyoftechnicalregulations,technicalstandards,qualitycertificationandothermeanstorestrictimportsfromothercountries.Withtheadvancementofscienceandthedeepeningoftechnologicalinnovation,newtechnicalstandardswillcontinuetoemergeandbecontinuouslyincorporatedintonewtechnicalregulations.Technologicalinnovationhasmadetestingequipment,methods,andmethodsmoreadvanced,andsomedevelopedWTOmembercountrieshavegraduallyimprovedthelevelofusingTBT,andthestandardsandrequirementsforimportedproductshavebecomemoredetailedanddemanding.Forexample,Japan’spesticideresiduesonChinesericehaveincreasedfromtheoriginal65testindicatorsto104;inaddition,fromtheperspectiveofthefieldsinvolved,TBTstartsfromtheproductionfieldandgraduallyexpandstothetradefield,fromtangiblegoodstofinanceandinformation.Andotherservices,aswellasvariousfieldsofinvestmentandintellectualpropertyrights.

(3)Theimplementationofquantityguaranteeisfrequentlyused

Themainformsofquantityguaranteemeasuresareimportquotas,voluntaryexportquotasandimportprohibitions.Quantityguaranteemeasureshavedirectandrapideffectsonexportrestrictions.Therefore,manyWesterncountrieshaveusedthecharacteristicsoftherapiddevelopmentofforeigntradeindevelopingcountriesasameansofattackingthe"surginginquantity"ofexportsofothercountries.Amongthem,themostthreateningisthe"specialprotectionclauses"formulatedspecificallyforChina.Forexample,onJune23,2005,theBraziliangovernmentwilltakespecialsafeguardmeasuresforproductsoriginatinginChinatotemporarilyprotectthedomesticindustryinBrazil.ForotherspecificproductsinChina.Inaddition,theEU,theUnitedStatesandothermajorexportingcountriesinChinaalsohaveatendencytoturntospecialprotectionclauseswhentheycannotfindsuitablereasonstoimplementtechnicaltradebarriersandanti-dumpingmeasures.

(4)Thenameofgreenbarriershasincreasedsharply

Tradeandenvironmentalissuesaregettingmoreandmoreattentionfromtheinternationalcommunity,governmentsandpeopleofvariouscountries,andhavebecomeoneofthefocalissuesintheinternationalpoliticalandeconomicfields.Therefore,Westerndevelopedcountrieshavetakenadvantageofthegreenwavesweepingtheworldandtherisingtrendoftheworld’sgreeneconomy,underthebannerofprotectingnaturalresources,protectingtheenvironmentandhumanhealth,andformulatingaseriesofcomplexanddemandingenvironmentalprotectionsystemsandstandards.Productsandtheirservicessetupbarriers.Suchasthe"whiteswansystem"ofthefourNordiccountries,the"EUsystem"oftheEuropeanUnion,andthe"eco-labelsystem"ofJapan.

(5)Useofgrayareameasures

GraymeasuressuchaspreferentialrulesoforiginandgovernmentprocurementpoliciesarestilloutsidetheWTO’smultilateralbindingrules.Chinaiswidelyusedasameansoftradeprotection.Becauseofthehugeeconomicbenefitshiddenbehindtherulesoforiginandgovernmentprocurementpolicies,thegovernmentsofvariouscountriesformulatevariouslawsandregulationstorestricttheimportofproductsfromothercountriesinordertoprotecttheinterestsofproducersinthatcountry.

(6)Theriseoflaborstandardsandanimalwelfare

AlthoughthetwomeasuresoflaborstandardsandanimalwelfarehavenotbeenincludedintheinternationaltradeThecountry’scomparativeadvantagesinlaborandrawmaterialshavebeentryingtomakeitformallyaWTOsystem,andithasgraduallybeguntousethismeasuretorestrictexportsfromdevelopingcountries.Intermsofanimalwelfare,forexample,in2002,abatchoflivepigsinUkrainearrivedinFranceafteralongjourneyofmorethan60hoursbutwasrejectedbytheFrenchauthorities.Thereasonwasthatthewelfareofthepigswasnottakenintoaccountduringthetransportationprocessandtheprescribedtimewasnottakenduringthetransportation.Intermsoflaborstandards,accordingtoasurveyorganizedbytheAmericanChamberofCommerce,currently50%ofmultinationalcompaniesandforeigntradecompaniessaidthatiftheSA8000standardisimplemented,theywillre-signnewprocurementcontractswithChinesecompanies.SinceChina'sproductstructureismostlylabor-intensive,andSA8000ismainlyforlabor-intensiveproducts,thiswillundoubtedlyhaveahugeimpactonChina'sforeigntradedevelopment.

Thereisnodoubtthatnon-tariffbarrierswillplayanincreasinglyimportantroleininternationaltrade,andnewnon-tariffbarrierswillcontinuetoappear.Inordertodealwiththeimpactofforeignnon-tariffbarriers,theauthorbelievesthatthefollowingcountermeasuresshouldbetaken.

(1)Carryouttechnologicalinnovationandimproveproductquality

Enterprisesshouldtaketheopportunitytodealwithnon-tariffbarriers,relyontechnologicalprogresstoadjustthestructureofexportcommodities,promoteindustrialupgrading,andincreaseChina'sexportcommoditiesThetechnologicalcontentandprocessinglevel.Thefirstistostrengthentechnologyresearchanddevelopment,especiallytheresearchanddevelopmentofkeytechnologies,tocontinuouslydevelopnewmaterials,newenergy,newprocesses,newformulas,newmethods,andlaunchnewproducts,soastoincreasethetechnologicalcontentofproductsandpromotetheproductstructuretobehigh-techproductsandhigh-techproducts.Transformationofvalue-addedproducts;thesecondistoincreasethedegreeofdeepprocessingofproductsandproduceintermediatesintofinishedproducts,whichcannotonlyincreasetheprofitsofenterprises,butalsoavoidvariousformsoftradebarriers.

(2)Givefullplaytotheroleofindustryassociations

Inthecompetitionofmarketeconomy,themarketingmethodofsinglesisnotsuitablefortheneedsofparticipatingintheinternationalproductmarketcompetitionafterjoiningtheWTO.Throughtheindustryassociation,thelinkbetweenthegovernmentandenterprises,itcanhelpproducerscoordinateexportprices,reducepricecompetitionandcannibalismforChineseproducts,andprovideservicesinexternalpublicity,negotiation,sales,etc.,andundertakelarge-scaleproduction.Workbeforeandafterchildbirth.Inaddition,itisalsopossibletotrackchangesinforeignnon-tariffbarriermeasuressothatcompaniescankeepabreastofforeignmarkettradebarriersinatimelymanner.

(3)Acceleratetheformulationandimprovementoftechnicallabelsandregulations

Inresponsetotechnicalbarriers,Chinaurgentlyneedstoimprovethetechnicalstandardsandtechnicalregulationssystem.First,itisnecessarytograduallyestablishacertificationsystemfortechnicalregulationsandstandardsthatisinlinewithinternationalstandards.AccordingtorelevantWTOagreements,wemustvigorouslypromotethecertificationsystemoforiginmarks,activelyimplementthecertificationofISO19000,ISO14000marksandSA8000standards,andacceleratetheintegrationofinternationalenvironmentalstandards.Thesecondistoincreasetheenterprise'sawarenessoftechnologyandstandardizationlegalsystemtoadapttothespecialrequirementsofinternationaltradeontechnicalstandards.Byactivelyadoptinginternationalstandards,timelygraspinginternationalproductioninformationandproductiontechnologylevels,absorbingadvancedachievements,organizingforcesfortechnicalresearch,improvingproductqualityandgrade,andenhancingthecompetitivenessofChineseproducts.

(4)Formulateandimplementamarketdiversificationstrategy

ThemarketdiversificationstrategyistomakeourproductsmorebalancedinthemarketAmarket.Therefore,fromthegovernmenttotheenterprisesmustworkhardtoadjusttheirexportmarketstrategies.Thespecificimplementationshouldbebasedontheprincipleof"consolidatingoldmarkets,openingupnewmarkets,andappropriatelydivertingexportsharesiftheexportshareistooconcentrated",sothatourproductscanbeexportedtomorecountriesandregions.Thiscannotonlypreventtheexportofcertainproductsfrombeingtooconcentrated,whichcaneasilybegiventoothers,therebyrestrictingChina'sexports,butalsoifthereisatradewar,Chinacanminimizelossesthroughtradediversion.

(5)Establishanearlywarningsystemfornon-tariffbarriers

1.Thegovernmentshouldurgeforeigntradecompaniestosystematicallycollectlaws,regulationsandindustrystandardsrelatedtoimports,foreigninvestmentandotherforeigneconomicandtraderelatedlaws,regulationsandindustrystandardsofvariouscountries(regions),establishcorrespondingdatabases,andtimelyunderstandwhatmeasuresandpoliciesareadoptedforcertaincommoditiesintheirmarkets,andVariouslocalstandards,andtheproblemsencounteredintheimplementationofthesestandards.

2.Choosingareliableforeignproductagentcompanynotonlyknowsthelocalmarketwell,butalsofullygraspsthelatestdevelopmentsintheindustryandthelatestneedsofconsumers.

3.Informationshouldbediffusedtogovernmentdepartments,industriesandenterprisesinatimelymanner,soastoensurethatinformationcanbeobtainedinadvancebeforeeachnon-tariffbarriercaseoccurs.Inordertoadjustexportstrategiesintime,reducetheprobabilityofbeingaffectedbynon-tariffbarriersandquicklyorganizeEnterprisesshouldcreateimportantconditions.

Inshort,fromthecurrentpointofview,itisimpossibletocompletelyeliminatenon-tariffbarriersbetweencountries,andnon-tariffbarrierswillexistforalongtime.Forthecountry’seconomicandtechnologicalsecurity,humanhealth,environmentalprotection,andrationalandeffectiveprotectionofChina’sleadingindustriesandnaiveindustries,weshouldcarefullystudytherelevantprovisionsoftheWTO,learnfromthepracticalexperienceofothercountries,andflexiblyuseinternationalpractices,InternationalrulesandWTOrules,andrefertointernationalnormstoestablishtheirownnon-tariffbarrierprotectionsystem,therebyenhancingthecompetitivenessofenterprisesininternationaleconomicandtrade.