Existentialism

Creatingthebackground

ExistentialismcameintobeingaftertheFirstWorldWar.TheFirstWorldWarwasthebeginningoftheendofEuropeanmodernitycivilization(thebeginningoftheprosperityofcivilization.TheFirstWorldWarwasawarofturfgrabbingcausedbytheexpansionofmodernEuropeancountriesafterthegrowthofmoderncountries.Afterthetwowars,modernitywasrealizedintheworld.Thehighdevelopmentofthecountrybringsglobalprosperity).Withtheadventofmoderntimes,peoplehaveenteredthenon-religiousstageofhistory.Atthistime,althoughpeoplehaveunprecedentedrights,technology,andcivilization,theyalsofindthemselveshomelessatthesametime.Withthelossoftheall-inclusiveframeworkofreligion,manhasnotonlybecomenothingbutafragmentedexistence.Individualshavenosenseofbelonging,thinkofthemselvesas"outsiders"inthishumansociety,andalienatethemselves.Whenindividualsurgentlyneedatheorytoresolvetheirfeelingsofalienation,existentialismcomesintobeing.

SchoolofThought

TheideologicaloriginofexistentialismmainlycomesfromSorenKierkegaard'smysticism,Nietzsche'svoluntarism,Husserl'sphenomenology,etc.ThemainfounderofexistentialismwasHeidegger,andtheonewhocarriedforwardexistentialismwasSartre.

SorenKierkegaard

SorenKierkegaard,Danishphilosopher,theologian,andpioneerofexistentialphilosophy.HewasbornintoawoolmerchantfamilyinCopenhagen,anouveauricheinChristianity.WorriedaboutGod’spunishment,thefamilywasshroudedinananxiousandmelancholicatmosphere.Kierkegorspenthiswholelifeinmelancholyandlivedinseclusionforlife.Atthattime,DenmarkwasasubsidiaryofGermany,livinginthemodernityofabackwardagriculturalcountry,andtheywereveryafraidofrevolution.TheywereafraidofthesocialistmovementinEuropeatthattime,andwerepanickedbytherevolutionarythoughtsofmodernliberalism.KierkegorestablishedtheChristianexistentialistideologicalsysteminhisphilosophicalwork"TheConceptofFear".ChristianexistentialismdeniestheexistenceofthematerialworldandHegel'sabstractspiritualexistence.Whatreallyexistscanonlybewhatexistsinanindividual’sheart.Itisaperson’spersonality.Apersonistheonlyrealityintheworldandtheyardstickofallthings.Apersonisasubjectiveconsciousnessoftheindividual,butthisisnottheconsciousnessofsensibilityandthinking.Itisanirrationalconsciousness,apersonalpsychologicalexperience.Whentheindividualisintheconsciousnessofpsychologicalexperience,themostdirect,vivid,anddeepestexperienceistheexistenceofpain,enthusiasm,need,lust,ambiguity,ambiguity,absurdity,vacillation,etc.Itispurelysubjective.,Themostbasicexistence.

Kierkegaard’spersonalityisverycontradictory.Inhisopinion,thecentralfactofthenineteenthcenturyisthattheonce-existingChristiancivilizationnolongerexists.Forthisreason,hespeciallywrote"TotheChristianWorld"Attack"todiscussthisissue.ButheisalsoaChristianatthesametime,andhebelievesthatallChristiansshouldlearnfromhim!AlthoughhebelievesthatChristianityonlycaresaboutpersonalthings,anddoesnotpayattentiontothedevelopmentandchangesoftheentiresociety,whichisinconsistentwithhisthinking.

BecauseofthecontradictionsinKierkegaard'spersonalthoughts,heisnotacceptedbytheworld.Peopleoftenseizesomeofhisflawsandmakeafuss,butignorehisthinkingbeyondthetimes——Kierkegaardadvocatedthatthemainmovementofmodernityistodrifttowardsgroupsociety.Andsuchahighlycollectivizedandexternalizedgroupsocietyalsomeansthedeathofindividuals.Here,Kierkegaarddeniestheroleofindividualexistenceandignoresthemeaningofexistenceintherealworld.Notonlyisheaheadoftime,butalsotooextreme,whichleadstohimbeingdislikedbyothersandoftenrefutedbyothers.

Jaspers

AfterWorldWarI,existentialismbegantoprevailinGermany,anditsmainrepresentativeswereHeideggerandJaspers.AftertheFirstWorldWar,GermanyandAustriafailed,theOctoberRevolutionsucceeded,theworkers'uprisingsinBerlinin1918-1928,armedstruggle,etc.,seriouslythreatenedtheexistenceofGermanmodernity,andmodernitywasfullofworries,worries,fears,pessimismanddisappointment,etc.Darkemotions.However,modernityisnotreconciledtofailure,alwaystryingtomakeacomeback,revengeandshame,inordertoventtheirdarkemotionsandleadthisemotiontothepathofself-struggle,soastoincorporatethepessimism,depressionanddecadenceamongtheintellectualsintotherevengeofmodernity.Orbit,existentialphilosophycameintobeing.WhenHitler'sNaziPartyofficiallycametopowerandGermanmodernitygainedpoweragain,theybecamelessfondofthesetofdepressiveanddecadentideasadvocatedbyexistentialism.

JaspersinheritedKierkegor'sChristianexistentialism,advocatedthepursuitofGod,andpointedoutthatphilosophyshouldstartfromthe"existence"-"man",andcareaboutitssurvivalinthecrisis.

Heidegger

TheunderstandingofexistenceitselfdeterminestheexistenceofDasein——MartinHeidegger

GermanphilosopherMartinHeideggerEristhefounderofWesternexistentialism,andhewasdeeplyinfluencedbyNietzsche.Hesaid:"OnlywhenwestartthinkingcanwehearNietzsche'scallsign."

HeideggeristhemostcreativephilosopherinGermanyinthe20thcentury.Hepreachesatheisticexistentialism,whichistheexistenceofatheism.Oneofthemainrepresentativesofism.Heputforwardthetitleofexistentialismforthefirsttimein"BeingandTime"(1926),andpromotedthesystematizationandclarificationofexistentialisttheory.Regardingthequestionof"howdoesapersonexist",hepointedout:Asapersonof"existence",heisfacedwith"nothingness",lonelyandhelpless,alwaystrappedintroubleandpain.Thereasonwhypeoplesufferisbecausetheyareoutoftouchwithhisbottom-upconditions.Theyarefacedwithanincomprehensibleworld,thatis,anabsurdworld.Peoplecanonlyworryandfearforever.Itisworriesandfearsthatrevealthetrueexistenceofpeople.Peoplehavethefreedomofself-choiceandself-control.Worryandfearleadtoexistence.Onlyexistencecantalkaboutthefreedomofself-choice.Itisrelatedtolightandhappiness.

In"BeingandTime",Heideggermadeadeepanalysisofdeath,fromwhichwecanalsoseehisviewsonthevalueofhumanexistence."Iamgoingtodie"isnotanexternalandpublicfactintheworld,butaninternalpossibilityofmyownexistence.Icandieatanytime,sodeathismycurrentpossibility,andIwilldefinitelydie,nomatterwhichwayIdie,sodeathistheextremeofmyexistence.Itisthemostextremeandabsoluteofmypossibilities.Torecognizedeathistorecognizethefinitudeofman,soHeideggeralsostudiedthisissue.Theexperienceofhumanfinitenessdoesnotlieinitsperimeterandextension,butinthecoreofitsexistence.-Manisfinite,becauseitsexistenceisfullofnon-existence!Heideggerisdiscussingthisprobleminsuchacontradiction.

Heideggerpointedout:TheentirehistoryofWesternthoughtonlypaysattentiontotheexistenceofthings,andforgetstheexistenceofthingsthatexist.Thisisagreatbreakthroughinphilosophicalresearch!Buthowtorevealthis,heborrowedthephenomenologyofhisteacherHusserlasatool.Theword"phenomenon"means"tomanifestitself"inGreek,soHeideggerpointedoutthatphenomenologymeanslettingthingsexplaintheirownattempts.Hesaid:“Onlywhenwedon’ttrytosqueezethingsintotheframeoftheideaswemakeforthem,canitrevealitselftous.”HereiswherehebeginstorefuteNietzsche’sviewthatknowledgeisultimatelyamanifestationofthewilltopower..AccordingtoHeidegger'spointofview,wecannotrelyonforce,conquerandsuppresstorecognizeanobject,butonlyletitbenatural,soastomakeitshowwhatitis.

TheexistenceofDescartes'consciousnessis"Ithink,thereforeIam."AndHeideggertorethroughthepictureofDescartes'philosophyinonefellswoop.Thebasiccharacteristicofmanisthatitisanexistenceintheworld.Manisintheworld,becausemaniscompletelyinexistence.Heregardsmanasafieldorfieldofexistence,andthereisnoso-calledspiritualentityorself-entityatthecenterofthefield.

Sartre

AftertheSecondWorldWar,existentialismoccupiesanimportantpositioninFrenchthoughtcirclesandestablishedChristianexistentialism.Somewritershaveexpandedtheinfluenceofexistentialismthroughpropagandathroughliterarycreation.Frenchexistentialismisbasicallydividedintotwomajorfactions:Simone.ChristianExistentialismrepresentedbyWeirandGabrielMarcel;toJeanPaulSartre,AlbertCamus,De.TheatheisticexistentialismrepresentedbyBeauvalisalsoknownasSartre’sexistentialism,orsimplyexistentialism.

Francewasfullofnegativedecadence,pessimismanddisappointmentinWorldWarII.Intellectualsformedacynicalandbohemianfashionduetodepression,loneliness,abandonment,andlackofawayout.Asaresult,Sartre’sexistentialism,whichputspersonallife,freedom,andexistenceinthefirstplace,wasgreatlywelcomedandregardedasthemostfashionablephilosophybythebourgeoisieandintellectuals.Inthe1950sand1960s,itbecamethemostpopularphilosophicaltrendinEurope.

Sarterdividesexistenceintotwotypes:self-existenceandself-existence.Freeexistenceistheexistenceofanobjectequivalenttoitself.Theself-existenceexpandswithconsciousness,andtheessenceofconsciousnessisthatitisalwaysitself.Ourthoughtssurpassourselvesandeverything,sotheexistenceofhumanbeingsisalwaysself-transcendence:wealwaystranscendourselvesinexistence.Therefore,wecannotpossessourexistence,ourexistenceisalwaysoutsideofourselves,thatistosay,existenceprecedesessence.

However,Sartredidnotrealizethatinitstheoreticalsystem,thereisaself-existenceandself-existence,butitjustdoesnotexist!Ifthereisnoexistingspaceforself-beingandfreedom,howcantheyexist?

OnthebasisofstudyingthephilosophyofChristianexistentialism,Sartre,themasterofexistentialism,abandonedKierkegel’sreligiousmysticism,inheritedanddevelopedHusserl’sirrationalism,andformedHisownsystemofphilosophicalthinking-atheisticexistentialism.Sincethen,thedevelopmentofexistentialphilosophyhasenteredanewstage,whichiscommonlyreferredtoascontemporaryexistentialphilosophy.Theexistentialphilosophyputsforwardthreebasicprinciples:Oneisthat"existenceprecedesessence",human"existence"comesfirst,and"essence"follows."Thefirstistheexistence,appearance,andappearanceoftheperson,andthentheselfisexplained."Theso-calledexistence,firstisthe"self"existence,isthe"self-perceivedexistence",ifIdon'texist,everythingdoesnotexist.Theso-called"existenceprecedesessence"meansthat"self"precedesessence,thatistosay,one's"self"determinesone'sownessence.Thesecondis"Theworldisabsurd,andlifeispainful."Inthis"subjectivesociety",theremustbeconflict,resistanceandcrueltybetweenpeople,fullofuglinessandcrimes,andeverythingisabsurd.Andmanisjustapainfulpersoninthisabsurdandcruelsituation.Theworldcanonlygivepeopleendlessdepression,disappointment,pessimismandnegativity,andlifeispainful.Thisistrueforthepoor,andsoaretherich.Thethirdis"freechoice."Thisistheessenceofexistentialism.Thecoreofexistentialismisfreedom,thatis,peopleareabsolutelyfreewhenchoosingtheiractions.Inthisworld,everyonehastheirownfreedom.Inthefaceofvariousenvironments,theycanmake"freechoices"aboutwhatactionstheytakeandhowtotakeactions."Ifexistencereallyprecedesessence,mancanneverexplainhisactionswithreferencetoaknownorspecifichumannature.Inotherwords,thereisnodeterminism-manisfree.Manisfreedom."Sartrepointedout,Inthefaceofthings,ifapersoncannotmakea"freechoice"accordingtohisownwill,thiskindofpersonistantamounttolosinghispersonality,losinghis"self"andcannotberegardedasarealexistence.Sartre'sexistentialismphilosophyisnotonlythecoreofexistentialliterature,butalsotheideologicalfoundationofvariousschoolsofpostmodernismliterature.

Nietzsche

Nietzscheshoutedtheslogan"Godisdead"andputforwardthetheoryofabsolutevolition,whichhasinfluencedgenerationsofEuropeanphilosophers.Hecalledonthecurrenthumanitytocometoanend,andweshouldcreatea"superman"toreplacehumanbeingsandcontinuetoexistinthisworld.The"superman""created"byNietzscheisapersonwhodevelopsthe"willtopower"tothelimitinordertoachievegoalsbeyondhumanbeings.

Hesaid:"Thestrongestandhighestwilloflifedoesnotexistinthestruggleforsurvival,butinthewilltostruggle,inthewilltoforce."Hemadethefinalconclusionforthewilltoforce,usingitasthebasisforallotherpsychologicalmotivations.

However,Nietzschealsopointedoutatthesametime:Strengthitselfisakindofthoroughmotivation,andstrengthitselfisastrongwill.Therefore,whenhepursuedpowerasgreaterpower,hewouldinevitablyfallintothevoidoutsideofpoweritself,andtheproblemofnihilismarosefromthis.Becauseofthis,inthevoid,Nietzschedeclaredthatthehighestvalueofmanhaslosttheirvalue,-"Ifmanlosestheanchorchainonwhichhelivesbefore,"Nietzscheasked,"WillhedrifttoanendlessTogotothevoid?"Sowhatisthepurposeofhumanexistence?Forthevanity?ofcoursenot.Nietzschepointedoutthattheonlyvalueofhumanexistenceisprecisely:strength!

PhilosophicalPropositions

ExistencebeforeEssence

"ExistencebeforeEssence"isproposedbySartre,whichrepresentsthemetaphysicsofexistentialism.ThiskindofmetaphysicsisfundamentallydifferentfromthetraditionalWesternmetaphysics.Traditionalmetaphysicsgenerallyendows"essence"withuniversal,abstract,andformalcharacteristics,anditisgenerallybelievedthatintermsoftime,essenceprecedesexistence.

Essencepriortoexistenceisnotanabsoluteanduniversalrule.Itonlyappliestothings,notpeople.Man’sexistenceprecedeshisessence,whichmeansthathemustexistfirstbeforecreatinghimself.Butexistencedoesnotcreatehim,hecreateshimselfintheprocessofexistence.Sartreoncesaid,"Whatdoesitmeantosaythatexistenceprecedesessence?Whathemeansis:Firstofall,humanbeingsexist,appear,andappearonthescene,andthendefinethemselves.Accordingtoexistentialists,ifhumanscannotItisdefinedbecausehewasnothingatthebeginning,butlaterhewasacertainkindofperson,andhehimselfmadehimselfthekindofpersonhewantedtomake...ItisnotonlythathewantstomakehimselfHecreatedsuchaperson,andwhenherushedintoexistence,hewasdeterminedtomakehimselfsuchaperson.Manisnothingbutthewayhecreatedhimself.”Itcanbeseenthattheessenceofmanisthatmanhimselfpassesthroughhimself.Createdbythechoice,notgiven.ThispassageofSartrealsohelpsusunderstandthemeaningofexistentialism.Aboutthebasicconceptsofexistentialism:

1.Thecognitiveunderstandingof'existence'is:fromdiscovery,recognition,attributes,understanding,andfunctions;tosystemizationoffunctions,prosandcons,uses,effects,control,etc.Theinduction.

2.Itreferstotheexistenceofhumanbeings,nottheexistenceofacertain‘thing’.The‘thing’canonlybeinthestateof‘being’,waitingforpeopletodiscoverits‘existence’.

3.Itmeansthattheexistenceofhumansisdifferentfromtheexistenceofother‘animals’.Thefeelingofanimalsdoesnothavetheunderstandingandpositioningofreachingpeopleto‘existence’.

4.Referstotheexistenceofhumanbeings'perceived'things.Becausesomethingisalwaysinastateof‘being’,humanbeingscannotperceiveit-being.

5.Referstoaphenomenoninwhichsomepeopleperceive‘thing’butsomepeoplehavenotyetperceive‘thisthing’,andthisphenomenonisboundtobeinthisworld-Dasein.

6.Theexistenceofpeople's‘self-knowledge’.Withrationalknowledgeandirrationalknowledge,intheprocessofthisknowledge,onecanexperiencetheeffectofperceptual‘oneafteranother’.

7.Akindof"existence"messagesentbyanindividual,whichreleasesthe"something"he"perceives"tothepublic,resonateswiththefeedbackoftheinformation,andfeelseachother's"existence"——Thisinformationmaybesecret,andthe"receiver"perceivesthissecret'existence'.

Accidentalabsurdity

Allexistence,includinghumanexistence,isaccidental,somethingthathappensaccidentally.Butthisisnottosaythatthematerialuniverseischaoticanddisorderly,withnorulesandlawsatall,norisittosaythatthelawsdiscoveredbyscienceresearchonthematerialworldarecompletelyillusoryandunreliable.Itjustmeansthatthereisnothingpredeterminedforbothhumansandthematerialuniverse.

Theso-calledaccidentmeansthatthereisnoreasonfortheexistenceofthematerialworld,norisitdeducedfromanabsoluteconcept,thoughtorspirittohaveacertainmeaninginadvance.

Sinceallexistenceisnotdetermined,butaccidental,existenceisuncertain.Itcanbeinferredfromthisthat,fundamentallyspeaking,existenceisabsurd.

Therefore,wehavenoreasontodecideinadvancethatthingsshouldbethiswayandnotthatway.Similarly,wehavenoreasontodecideinadvancethatpeopleshouldbethiswayandshouldnotbethatway.

Asforthesolutiontotheproblemofabsurdity,thewaythattheisticexistentialistsputforwardisreligiousbelief,whiletheatheisticexistentialistsbelievethattheyshouldacttogainthemeaningoflifeforthemselvesandcreatetheirownvalue.

Freechoice

Existenceisaccidentalandabsurd.Forpeople,theyexistfirst,andthentheydecidetheiressencethroughtheirownchoices.Therefore,peoplehaveabsolutefreedom,andtheirexistenceisinseparablefromtheirchoicesandresponsibilityfortheirownchoices.

Sarterpointedoutthathumanfreedomisabsolute,becausepeopleliveinanisolatedandhelplessworld,andpeopleare“thrown”intotheworld.God,science,reason,morality,etc.treatpeopleTheyareirrelevant,thatistosay,theycannottellusthetruthoflife,thewayoflife,andatthesametime,theyhavenocontrolorrestraintonpeople.Becauseofthis,peoplehaveabsolutefreedom.

Existentialismrecognizesthathumanfreedomismanifestedintwoaspects:choiceandaction.Onlythroughtheactionsofone'schoicecanpeoplerealizefreedom,becausethenatureofapersonisdeterminedbytheactionsofone'schoice.

Individualfreedomisfirstmanifestedinhisrealizationthathelacksfreedomduetotheshacklesoftraditionalcultureandcustoms.Therefore,forpeople,themostimportantthingistounderstandtheimportanceofchoiceandfollowtheirownchoices.Actandtakeresponsibilityforlife.

People-to-people

Therelationshipbetweenpeopleisacommonconcernofexistentialists.Differentexistentialistshavedifferentviewsonthisissue.However,theyallpointedoutthatIcanunderstandothersandotherscanunderstandme.Thedifferenceliesin:Iregardothersorothersascropsorassubjectivepeople..

Intermsoftherelationshipbetweenpeople,HeideggerandSartrebasicallybelongtothesametype,thatis,theybelievethattherelationshipbetweenindividualsandothersisopposite,whichisactuallyasubjectandobject.,Therelationshipbetweenpeopleandthings.However,theotherfactionrepresentedbyBuberandMarceladvocatestheopposite.

Heideggerpointedout:Apersonmustdealwithotherpeopleintheworld,andhisrelationshipwithotherpeopleis"trouble"and"trouble".Gettingalongwithotherpeoplewillinevitablycauseinfinitetroubles.Hemayconspirewithotherpeople,oragreewithoropposeothers.

Sarterpointedout:"Othersarehell."Othersareanobjectofexistence.Thisobjectisdifferentfromobjects.Notonlydoesheexist,butitalsoposesathreattomebecauseheisafreeobject.Underhis"gaze",hemightturnmeintoathing.Inthiscase,thereareonlytwowaysforapersontobefreefromtheeyesofothersorfromthehellofothers:eitherwillinglydootherpeople'sthings,ormakeotherstheirownthingsandmanipulateothers.

Buberpointedout:Therearetwodifferentrelationshipsbetweenmanandtheoutsideworld.Oneisanobjectiverelationship,whichischaracterizedby"Iandit."Anothertypeof"meandyou"relationshipthatlooksatothers.Ifthe"meandyou"relationshipbetweenpeopleistreatedasthe"meandit"relationshipbetweenpeopleandthings,thenhumannaturewillbedestroyed.

Intherelationshipbetween"meandit",individualsviewexternalthingsinapurelyobjectiveway,seeingthemasthingsthatareusedandmanipulatedfortheirownpurposes.

Inthe"meandyou"relationship,eachpersonhashisowninnermeaningworld,andthe"meandyou"relationshipischaracterizedbythefriendshipbetweentwopeople.YouandIarebothsubjects.Wesympathizewitheachother,trusteachother,andunderstandeachother.Andaseriesof"meandyou"relationshipsconstitutetherelationshipbetweenmanandGod.

Marcelpointedout:Peoplecancommunicatenotonlywiththemselves,butalsowithothers,anditiscompassionandlovethatconnectsoneselfwithothers.Interpersonalcommunicationisanecessaryconditionforsociallife.Onlywhencommunicatingwithotherswillherealizethatheisnotaloneandseehope.

TragedyTheory

Intheeyesofexistentialists,humanbeingsliveinadisappointingworldoppositetooneself,andtheirstatusintheworldisuncertain.Absolutelyfreepeoplearealsotroubledandhelplesslonelypeople.Althoughmanhasthefreedomofchoice,thefuturelifehefacesischaoticandgoalless.Hejustwalksblindlytothefuture,heonlyknowsthatthetrueendoflifeisdeath.Asthefinaldestinationoflife,deathisofgreatsignificancetotheexistenceofindividuals.

Theologicalrelations

SomephilosophershavesystematicallytriedtoapplyexistentialismtoChristianthought.Thisapproachhasbeencriticizedbymanycritics.SomeconservativeProtestantseventhinkthatnomatterwhatsecularphilosophyisusedtointerpretChristianity,itwillinevitablycausedistortionandpaleness.Moreover,existentialismisonlyaculturalproductcausedbythedarknessanddisappointmentofthetwentiethcentury.ItisverydifferentfromtheChristianfaith.Tosuppressthosewhohaveadvanced,thecriticsalsopointedoutthatexistentialismisbasicallyhumanistic,andthereisnoroomfortranscendenceinit.Finally,whenatheologian,suchasF.BurioftheUniversityofBasel(F.Buri,1907-),attemptstoextremeandcomprehensivelysynthesizeChristianityandexistentialism,hemayendupdenyingtranscendenceandevenGod’sspecialbehavior.End;otherwise,itwillbecomeextremesubjectivism,irrationalismandhuman-centeredthinking.

Manyexistentialtheologiansalsoattempttodefendthismatter.ThephilosophyofexploringhumanexistencemayprovideamoreappropriatechanneltoconveyChristianitythanempiricismorpositivism.BecausemostexistentialphilosophersaredeeplyinfluencedbytheChristiantradition,andfromHeidegger'santhropology,theyaredeeplyinfluencedbyAugustine(354-430)andDunsScotus(about1265).1308)andtheinfluenceofMartinLuther(M.Luther,1483-1546),andtheBiblicaltraditionofAbbottisalsoclearlyvisible,letaloneS.Kierkegaard(1813-1855)andMarcel.Existentialismrepresentsthereactiontothesuperficialutopianoptimismoftheworshipofscienceandtheomnipotenceoftechnology.Finally,existentialismcanhelpChristiansgainaclearerglimpseoftheessenceofChristiantheologyanditsrelationshipwithcontemporarycivilization,culture,andthought.

Representativeworks

"ExistenceandNothingness"(Author:JeanPaulSartre)

Introduction:

Thepublicationofthebook"ExistenceandNothingness"in1943announcedthebirthofSartreasaphilosopher.Hebegantousehisindependentthoughtsandphilosophicalwordstodescribehisunderstandingoftheworld:manisforhimselfExistencehasthecharacteristicsoftranscendence.Itisalwaysinchange,anditisrealizedinthepassageoftime.Preciselybecauseofitstemporality,"self-existence"isnotlike"self-existence"asanexistenceof"whatitis",butakindofexistencethatisalwaysdisplayedas"notwhatitisandis".Theexistenceofthefaceof"whatitisnot",whatapersonis,onlyreferstowhathewasinthepast,anddoesnotexistinthefuture.Thepresentisanegationlinkingthepastandthefuture,whichisactuallynothingness.Therefore,manisdestinedtobefree,andfreedomisman’sdestiny.Manmustfreelymakeaseriesofchoicesforhimself.Itisintheprocessoffreechoicethatmangivesmeaningtotheobject,butmanmustbearallhischoices.Fullresponsibility.

Thefirstthreepartsofthisbookaretosolvethebasicpointofviewofphenomenologicalontology:Sartredeterminedthecategoryofexistence,anddeterminedthestructureandcharacteristicsofself-existenceanditslawsofexistence.Onthisbasis,thefollowingtwopartsmainlydiscusstheexistenceofself-beingandotherself-beingbeings,andthespecificrelationshipbetweenself-being,thatis,andthesituation,therebydemonstratinghumanfreedom,andfinallyusingthephenomenological"psychoanalysisofexistence"Themethoddescribestheethicalmeaningoffreedom,whichisalsothefootholdofthe"phenomenologicalontology".

Representatives

SimonedeBeauvoir

SimonedeBeauvoir(January9,1908-April14,1986)

SimonedeBeauvoir,oneofthemostinfluentialwomeninFranceinthe20thcentury,existentialistscholarandwriter,attheageof19,sheissuedapersonal"DeclarationofIndependence",proclaiming"Iwillneverallowmylifetosuccumbtothewillofothers."Beauwahasaclearmind,strongwill,vigorousvitalityandstrongcuriosity.SimonBoovawrotemanyworksinhislife.FormerFrenchPresidentMitterrandcalledher“themostoutstandingwriterinFranceandtheworld”;anotherformerFrenchPresidentChiracsaidinaspeech:“Sheintervenesinliteratureandrepresentsacertainideologicalmovement.Marksthecharacteristicsofoursociety.HerunquestionabletalenthasmadeherawriterwiththemoststatusinthehistoryofFrenchliterature."

Personalprofile

SimonaDeBeauvoirisafamousFrenchexistentialistwriter,oneofthefoundersofthefeministmovement,andthelifelongpartnerofJean-PaulSartre.AlsotranslatedasSimonBoova.ThefullnameisSimonLucy-Ernestine-MariePortranddeBeauvoir,borninParis,graduatedfromtheÉcoleNormaleSupérieureinParis,passedtheexaminationin1929,andobtainedthequalificationsofphilosophyteacheratthesametimeasSartre.,AndhassincebecomeSartre'slifepartner.

Beuveauwasborninarelativelyconservativeandwealthyfamily,butsherefusedherparents’arrangementsforhercareerandmarriagesinceshewasachild.Shehasastrongindependence.AftersheandSartremet,thetwosharedacommonLovebooks,havecommonambitions,becomepartnersinacommonlife,buthavenotfulfilledthemarriageproceduresthroughouttheirlives,andrespecteachother'ssexualrelationshipwithotherpeople,butthetwopeopleloveeachotherbasedonmutualrespectandcommonbeliefsVerystrong,afterSartredied,Beauvoirwrote"FarewellCeremony",whichisapainfulmemoryofthelastdaysoflivingwithSartre,revealingastronglove.

Beuveaucombinesexistentialphilosophywithrealisticmorality,andhaswrittenmanynovelsandessays.Hernovel"HighlyOfficials"wontheGoncourtPrize,thehighestliteraryprizeinFrance.Thethemeofthenovelistoshowthatintellectualscannotservetherevolutionandtruthatthesametime.Althoughthetwoprotagonistshavedifferentrevolutionarygoalsandmethods,theybothfailandsacrificeintheintricaterelationship.Inaddition,shehaswrittenmanynovelssuchas"TheFemaleGuest","TheBloodofOthers","PeopleAreInevitabletoDie","TheRomanceofCelebrities"andthethesis"EstablishinganAmbiguousEthics","ExistentialistTheoryandNationalitiesWisdom,PirusandSneas,etc.,putforwardtherelationshipbetweenethicsandexistentialtheory,andshehasalwaysbeenregardedasthesecondSartre.

ThemostimportantworkofBeauvoirisher"SecondGender",whichisconsideredthe"Bible"ofthefeministmovement.Exceptfornaturalsex,all"feminine"characteristicsofwomenarecausedbysociety.Thesamegoesformen.Thisisthemostimportantpointofherbook.Inherbook,shepointedoutthatwomenbecauseoftheirpoorphysicalstrength,whenliferequiresphysicalstrength,womenareconsciouslyweakandfearfreedom.Menuselegalformstofixwomen'slowstatus,butwomenstillobeywillingly.ShedisagreeswithwhatEngelssaidthatthetransitionfrommatrilinealclansocietytopatrilinealclansocietyistheregainingofpowerbymen,andbelievesthatwomenhaveneverreceivedpowerinhistory,eveninmatrilinealclansociety.Shebelievesthatthetrueliberationofwomenmustbegiventherighttofreelychoosechildbearing,andgotooneutral.TheEnglishtranslationofherbookisextremelypopularintheUnitedStates,andhasplayedamajorroleincreatingthefeministmovementsincethe1960s.

AfterBeauvoirdied,theywereburiedwithSartreintheMontparnasseCemeteryinParis.

LifeExperience

In1908,SimonwasborninascholarlyhomeinParis,andhaslivedacomfortable,stableandsuperiorlifesincehewasachild.

In1929,intheFrenchcollegeandmiddleschoolteacherqualificationexamination.Sartre'sPhilosophyTesttookthefirstplace,andSimonwonthesecondplace.Thisyear,Sartrewastwenty-fouryearsoldandSimonwastwenty-oneyearsold.Atthistime,thelovebetweenthemisjustmutualadmirationofintelligence.AccordingtoSimon'slateryears,theirrelationshipwasmainlyver-bol,andthis"maybethereasonwhyourrelationshipissolong."

Aftertheexam,SartreandSimonhadfrequentcontacts.WhenSimonwasabouttogotothecountryhomeforvacation,thetwobegantorealizethepainofthecomingseparation.Withinafewdays,theirrelationshipchangedfromintellectualdiscussiontophysicalattraction.Simonlaterrecalled:"Thatsummer,Iseemedtobestruckbylightning.Theidiomofloveatfirstsightsuddenlyhadaspecialromanticmeaning.""WhenIsaidgoodbyetohiminearlyAugust,Ialreadyfeltthathecouldneverleavemeanymore.Hiswholelife."

Inthedaysinthecountry,Simonwasextremelydistressed.PerhapsitwasthesincerelovethatmovedGod.Onemorning,hercousinraninandtoldhergently:Ayoungmanwaswaitingforherinthefield.ItreallywasSartre.

Butherparentshadnointentionofinvitingherfriendstolunch.Relyingonthewarm-heartedcousintodeliverfood,poorSartrespentseveralnightsaloneinthefield.Finally,lovedroveSimon,regardlessofhisparents'opposition,hetookfoodtomeetSartreinthewild.Theyspentarealdaytogether.Onthisday,theyhadsexforthefirsttime.Thatnight,Simonreturnedhome."Noonespoke,myfatherignoredme,mymotherwascryingintheroom,andmycousinthoughtourincidentwasextremelyromantic.Iwasrelievedthateverythingwasclear.Myparentscouldnolongercontrolme.Life.NowIamreallyresponsibleformyself,IcandowhateverIwant,theycannolongercontrolme."

Yes,Sartrecanneverleaveherlifeanymore.From1929,whentheyfellinlove,untilSartre'sdeathin1980.Theyspent51springandautumntogether.Althoughtheyhavenotfulfilledthelegalmarriageprocedures,theyhaveevenkepttheirownhouses.

In1931,SimonwenttoteachinMarseille.SartrewenttoLeHavretoteach.Duringthisperiod,awomannamedOlgawalkedintotheirlives.Althoughthistriangularrelationshiptookaveryshorttimeintheirlovejourney,itleftSimonenoughthemestocompleteherdebutnovel"UninvitedGuest".

In1939,WorldWarIIbrokeout.Sartrewenttothefront.Betweenthegunfire,Sartrewroteloveletterstohim"DearCharmingBeaver"everyday.("Beaver"isSimon'snickname)

In1945,Sartre,Simonandafewfriendsco-foundedthe"Existentialist"philosophy"NewEra"monthly.

In1949,"SecondSex"waspublishedasthe"Bible"ofthe"feministmovement".

In1954,hewontheGoncourtAwardfor"High-rankingOfficials".

VisittoChinainthe1950s.Theresultofthistripwastheadventof"LongMarch".

SimonpublishedSartre'slovelettertoherinhislateryears.Thetitleofthebookis"LettertotheBeaver".It'sapity:"Beaver"didnotincludeasinglereply.

OnApril14,1986,SimondeBeauvoirdiedinParis.Hewas78yearsold.Simon'sdeathcausedrepercussionsallovertheworld.Variousreputationscameoneafteranother.ThewordsofthethenGeneralSecretaryoftheFrenchCommunistParty,Marshall,wereparticularlyprofound:"BeuveaudisagreeswithalltheviewsoftheCommunists.Herargumentwithusisunshakable,butIgreetheronbehalfofalltheFrenchCommunists,becausesheItalwaysrepresentsanimportantmomentinthedevelopmentofoursocialprogressthoughts."

Abriefhistory

Abriefhistoryofexistentialism

Creator:Sartre(L`Existentialismeestunhumanisme,Paris,1946)

Existentialism,whichemergedinGermanybutwascarriedforwardbytheFrench,isthemostrepresentativeofthefirsthalfofthe20thcenturyPhilosophicaltrends.Thepedigreeofexistentialismisvastanddiverse.Thinkersorwritersclassifiedunderthisbannerdonothaveconsistentdogmasorbeliefs.Theyarelikefamilymemberswithsimilarlooksbutsuspiciousbloodlines.Ifweonlytalkaboutthebasiccharacteristicsofexistentialism,itsgenealogycanbetracedbackatleasttoAugustineinthefourthcentury.However,thispointmaybeveryvaluableinthestudyofthehistoryofthought,butitisnotveryhelpfultotheunderstandingofcontemporaryexistentialism.AsthehistorianofphilosophyCoplestonsaid,thetermexistentialismdoesnotrepresentanyparticularphilosophicalsystem.Infact,wecanreservethistermtoSartre'sphilosophy,becauseheclearlycallshisphilosophyexistentialism.TheironyisthatSartre"kindly"builtaspacious"houseofexistence".Manyphilosopherswhowerewelcomedintothehousedidnotappreciateit,andwouldratherlivewithouthelp.However,the"existentialistpatriarchs"whohavebeen"posthumously"byhim:Chikego,Nietzsche,andJaspers,havebecomeinvoluntarybeneficiariesofthismovementbymistake,andtheycan'thidethemselves.

Althoughthenameisnotpopularwithpeers,existentialismstillswepttheworld.Thebigreasonisthatbecauseofhis"resistance"Mr.ChenGuying'sviews,theconsistencyofexistentialistsismanifestedintworesoluteresistances:(1)Rebellionagainstthebasicideaof​​philosophyAssumptionsandconclusions,especiallyHegel’stranscendentalpan-logic;

(2)Rebellionagainstmaterialismandtechnologicalpragmatism,accusingthemofattributingthehighestvalues​​andidealsofhumanbeingstoanimalinstinctsThesublimationofhumanbeingshasstrangledthetruespiritofhumanculture.Justasthestrongsloganofthephenomenologicalmovement:"Facingthethingitself!",therewasalsoanadsloganinhisdirectlineofexistentialism:"Existenceprecedesessence".Thispropositionwaselaboratelycraftedbythemasterofexistentialism,Sartre.Itmaybeweakinmomentum,butitisfullofphilosophicalspeculation.

Sarterfurtherexplainedinthearticle"ExistentialismisaHumanism"(1946)(thisarticlecanberegardedasamanifestoofexistentialism):"Whatdowemeanwhenwesaythatexistenceprecedesessence?Wemeanthatmanexistsfirstandsuffersvarioustwistsandturnsinthisworld-andthendefineshimself."Sartrebelievesthatthispropositioncanberegardedasthebasicbeliefofexistentialists,butnoteveryoneagrees.Inadditiontothisfamousslogan,thetermsoftenusedbyexistentialistsinclude:subjectivity,inter-subjectivity,emptiness,fear,anxiety,alienation,andsoon.Althoughtheupsurgeofexistentialismisnowgone,wecanstillsmellthespecialatmosphereofthaterathroughthesewords.

Existentialismoriginatedinthephilosophicalworld,butitblossomedintheliterarykingdom.Mostoftheexistentialistsknowntotheworldareliteraryandmartial,withright-handedhand-writtenargumentsandleft-handedpoetry,andtheyhaveachievedoutstandingresults.Thereasonisthatliterarylanguageisbetterthanphilosophicallanguagetograspthelivinghumansituation.Existentialistsopposethereductionofhumanbeingsintoabstractconcepts.Whatbetterwaytoexaminetherelationshipbetweenhumansandtheworldthannovelsanddramas?Today,Dostoyevsky's"BrothersKaramazov"and"NotesintheBasement",Kafka's"Trial","Castle",Camus's"Alien"(alsotranslated"TheOutsider"),"Plague",Sartre's"Vomiting"(alsotranslated"Nausea","Disgust"),"Wall"andotherliteraryworkshavebecometextsthatmustbereadtounderstandthistrendofthought.

Literature

ExistentialistliteratureisatrendofliterarythoughtpopularinEuropeandAmericainthe20thcentury.Itisareflectionofexistentialphilosophyinliterature.Existentialism,asaliterarygenre,appearedafterWorldWarII,andwasmainlymanifestedinpost-warFrenchliterature.Itreacheditsclimaxfromthelate1940stothe1950s.

ThepioneerofexistentialphilosophywastheDanishKierkegel.AftertheFirstWorldWar,existentialismbecamepopularinGermany,anditsmainrepresentativewasHeideggerJaspers.AftertheSecondWorldWar,existentialismoccupiesanimportantpositionintheFrenchideologicalcircle.Somewriterspromotedthroughliteraryandartisticworks,whichexpandedtheinfluenceofexistentialism.Afterthe1960s,existentialismwasreplacedbyothernewgenres.Theabsurddramaand"blackhumor"werevariantsofexistentialliterature.

Theviewpointsofexistentialthinkersarenotexactlythesame.Somepeoplesaythatthereareasmanyexistentialismsasthereareexistentialphilosophersintheworld.Frenchexistentialismisbasicallydividedintotwomajorfactions:oneisChristianexistentialismrepresentedbySimoneWeilandGabrielMarcel;theotherisJeanPaulSartre,AlbertCamus,and·AtheisticexistentialismrepresentedbyBeauval.Intermsofthesocialinfluenceofliterature,Sartre(1905-1980)andCamus(1913-1960)arethemostimportant,andtheyarebothFrenchwriters.EspeciallySartre,heisthemasterofexistentialism.Hisphilosophicalworks"ExistenceandNothingness","ExistentialismisaHumanitarian","HumanProspects","CritiqueofDialecticalReason",etc.,laidthetheoreticalfoundationofthiskindofliterature.

Subjectiveconsciousnessdeterminesthemeaningofexistence,butrecognizesexistenceindependentofconsciousness."Iftheexistenceofaphenomenondoesnottransformintoaphenomenonofexistence,andwecanonlysaysomethingaboutexistencebyinvestigatingthisphenomenonofexistence,then,firstofall,weshouldestablishthekindofdefiniterelationshipthatunifiestheexistenceofthephenomenonandtheexistenceofthephenomenon.Ifweconsiderthateverythingmentionedaboveisdirectlyinspiredbytherevealingintuitionofthephenomenonofexistence,itmaybemucheasiertoestablishthisrelationshipbetweenthetwo.IfwedonotregardexistenceasrevealingTheconditionistoregardexistenceasamanifestationthatcanbedeterminedbyaconcept.Weareworthitfromthebeginning.Relyingonknowledgealonecannotprovideareasonforexistence,thatis,theexistenceofaphenomenoncannotbereducedtoaphenomenonofexistence.Inshort,atAnserWhatLunandDescartescalltheexistenceofphenomenainthesenseofontologicalproofis"ontological."Itisacalltoexistence.Asaphenomenon,itrequiresasuper-phenomenalbasis.Existingphenomenarequiresthesuper-phenomenonofexistence.Thisdoesnotmeanthatexistenceishiddenbehindaphenomenon(wehaveseenthatitisimpossibleforaphenomenontoconcealexistence),nordoesitmeanthataphenomenonisamanifestationofareturntoauniqueexistence(aphenomenonexistsonlyasamanifestation,thatistosay,Thephenomenonexpressesitselfonthebasisofexistence).Theimplicationisthatalthoughtheexistenceofthephenomenonisthesameastheextensionofthephenomenon,itcannotbeclassifiedasaphenomenoncondition—thiskindofconditionexistsonlyintermsofitsowndisclosure—therefore,thephenomenonTheexistenceofsurpassespeople’sunderstandingofitandprovidesabasisforthisunderstanding."

Existentialismpointsoutthathumanvalueisaboveeverythingelse.Individualsandsocietyareopposed,buttheyarealsocommunicableandinseparablefromeachother.Peoplearethrownintotheworld,objectivethingsandsocietyarealwaysagainstpeople,threatening"self"fromtimetotime.Sartrehasafamousexistentialistinhisscript"Confinement":"Othersare(mine)hell."Butexistentialismdoesnotonlytakecareofone'sownpersonalinterests,butadvocatestakingresponsibilityfortheworldand"intervening"insociety..SoSartresaid:"Whatisthecoreideaof​​existentialism?Itistheabsolutenatureoffreeassumingresponsibility;throughfreeassumingresponsibility,whenanyoneembodiesahumantype,healsoembodieshimself."

Theexistentialistsdenythecognitivefunctionofart,believingthatworksofartcannotreflectrealityandcanonlyrevealtheimpulseofpeople’sheartstoacertainextent,givingpeopletheabilityto"enjoy"andfeel,andmakepeople"Theirrationalfeelingisclearandclear."Theypointedoutthatthepurposeofartistsistocreatetheirownworld,expresstheirphilosophicalthoughtsandtheirownfeelings,nottoreproducetheobjectiveworldartistically.Underthecontrolofthiskindofthought,themaincontentofexistentialliteratureisoftentodescribethegloomypsychologyofindividualloneliness,disappointmentandinfinitefearintheabsurdworld.

TherepresentativeworksofexistentialliteratureincludeSartre’snovel"Disgusting",thephilosophicaldrama"Confinement"andCamus'novel"TheOutsider".

Existentialistliteratureadvocatesthecombinationofphilosophicalexplorationandliterarycreation,anditsmissionistoexpressexistentialphilosophicalviews.Mostoftheseworksdealwithmajorphilosophical,moral,andpoliticalthemes,emphasizingthought,neglectingform,andemphasizinglogicalthinkingandphilosophicalspeculation.

Existentialistwritersareopposedtodescribingpeopleandtheirdestinyaccordingtotheirtypesandpersonalities.Theypointedoutthatpeoplehavenoinnateessence,onlylivinginaspecificenvironment,relyingonpersonalbehaviortobuildthemselvesandinterprettheirownessence.Themaintaskofthenovelististoprovideafreshanddiverseenvironment,allowingthecharacterstosurpasstheirownlivingenvironmentandchoosewhatkindofpersontobe.Therefore,thetypificationofcharactersisrelegatedtoasecondaryposition.

Inliterarycreation,existentialwritersadvocatethetrinityofauthor,characterandreader.Pointoutthatwriterscannotwritenovelswithoutthereaders.Theauthor’sviewsshouldnotbeapriori,butmustbetestedbythereaders;onlywhenthenovelispresentedtothereaders,intheactivitiesofthecharactersinthenovel,theauthorandreaderscandiscoverthecharacterstogetherThetruefaceofit.ThistrinityviewhasagreatinfluenceontheyoungergenerationofwritersinEuropeandAmerica,andlater,itwasalsousedbyotherliteraryandtrendyschools.

Existence

TheexistentialismofthemodernEastisgraduallyaccumulatedintheexplorationofsociety.Inaddition,existentialismisbynomeanspessimistic,itpointsoutthathumanexistenceprecedeshumanessence.Weknowthattheessenceofobjectsprecedestheexistenceofobjects,andtheexistenceofhumansprecedestheessenceofhumans.Existentialismthinksabouttheabsolutenessofhumanbeings,andthathumanbeingsareabsoluteindividuals.Onlywhenpeopleexistfirstcanpeoplechasefreedom.Andpeoplehavetheirsinsanddarksides.Existentialismkeepsthinkingaboutthisissue.

LiteraryWorks

Speakingofthedeepestreflectiononthedeclineofhumannatureinliteraryworks,whatmustbedealtwithistheimportantfieldof"existentialliterature".Becauseexistentialliteraturenolongerportraysindividualcharactersituations,butratherstatesanissueofthetimes.Therefore,readerscannotstayoutofthesituationandwatchotherpeople'scomediesandtragedies.Readerswillseefromthephilosophicalrhetoricofexistentialliterature,peopleinallages,includingtheirownpain,anxietyanddespair.

Literature,intermsofitsroughstaging,hasexperiencedthe"classicalera",the"romanticera",andrebelliousromance,accordingtothefacts,the"writingcontemporaryera"thatdescribestheplightofthemiddleandlowerclasses,andrebellingagainRealistic,intothe"newromanticschool"ofmysterioussymbolicstreamofconsciousness.Thepeakoftheneo-romanticschool,asfarasthenovelisconcerned,Joeys's"Ulysses"isthefirst.Afterthat,theliterarystagingsuddenlyturnedandenteredtheperiodof"existentialliterature".

Whatexactlyisexistentialliterature?Thechoiceof"existence"issomewhatrelatedtothephilosophyofexistence.

PhilosophicalLiterature

AfterphilosophystartedfromDescartes’binaryoppositionofsubjectandobject,andaffirmedthesubject’srationalabilitywith"Ithink,thereforeIam",itexperiencedtheempiricistsBerkeleyandHume.WhenKantcametoKant,hecriticizedthetraditionalcognitionoftheinfinitecapacityofreason,thinkingthatreasoncannotunderstandthething-in-itself.Atthistime,thepeakofrationalisminphilosophyhaspassedandisgraduallydeclining.Inaddition,sociologicalresearchersMarxandWeberCriticismofhumanrationality,andevenscientificConfucianquestioningwhetherscientific"models"arepossibleobjectively...,philosophicaltraditionsarealmostcompletelydismantledundertheimpactseverywhere.

Atthismoment,therewasabigturninphilosophy:Husserlusedhisnewmethodologyto"restorethebracketsandleavethemalone"inanattempttofindoutthepresuppositionsthatmustbequestionedbehindthepresuppositionof"forgranted".Hismostimportantdisciple,Heidegger,reviseditagainbasedonthetheoryofhisteacherHusserl,andproposedaphilosophicaltheory"Iam,thereforeIthink",whichiscompletelyoppositetothatofDescartes.Hebelievedthatphilosophyshouldnotstartwith"knowledge"butshouldStartwith"Dasein".Daseindoesnotonlycovertraditionalrationality.Itisawholeperson,asubjectwithemotion,time,andhistory.

Sincethen,theclosedontologicalresearchinphilosophyisnolongerlimitedtohumanreason.Thenewepistemologyaffirmsimagination,subconsciousness,archetypes,challenges,hopes,beliefs,compassion,choices,andwill.

Inotherwords,philosophybegantostudy"life".Lifeistheself-expressionof"Dasein".Lifecannotavoidanxiety,worries,indulgence,andultimatedeath.Themostdesirablesituationinlifeis"absolutefreedom"...

Thiskindofturnoccurredaroundtheendofthe19thcentury,andittookshapeaftertheendofWorldWarII.TheworldafterWorldWarIInolongerbelievesintheprogressofrationality.Instead,itisfilledwithself-examinationandreflectiononthenationalcatastrophecausedbyHegel's"absoluterationality."Therefore,followingHeidegger'sphilosophy,nomatterwhetheritisNeo-Marx,hermeneuticsorpost-modernphilosophy,theyalltrytousephilosophytosolvetheproblemsoftheworld.

Existentialliteratureflourishedatthistime.Themostimportantexistentialwriters,suchasGamut,Kafka,andHemingway,almostallappearedaftertheFirstWorldWar.Althoughtheseexistentialliterarywritershavedifferentwritingstyles,theyarequiteconsistentinpresentingtheanxiety,worry,addictionandabsurdityinthestateoflife.

Alienationfromabsurdity

Acommonfeatureofexistentialliteratureistheliteraryapproximatephilosophy.Inthepastnovels,inadditiontothesymbolicandmysteriousstreamofconsciousness,theywouldclearlystatethestoryandplot.However,thereareliterarynovelsthatarenotstronginthestory,orthestorycanbestated,butitisnoteasytograsptheconnectionbetweenthestoryandrealityimmediately.Aphilosophicalinterpretationisneededtoassist.

Forexample,Kafka's"TheMetamorphosis"publishedin1919isaboutthestoryofapersonbecomingaworm.Ifyouinsistonliteraryinterpretation,ortelltheplot,charactersanddialogue,youwillfind"TheMetamorphosis"simplyabsurd.

"TheMetamorphosis"referstoapersonwhowakesupinthemorningandfindsthathehasbecomeabigworm.Thelivelihoodofhiswholefamilyisinhishands,soafterbecomingaworm,hehasbeenworryingaboutthelivesofhisparentsandsisterforafewdays,andislookingforwardtoreturningtoadulthoodassoonaspossible.Exceptforhissister,allhisfamilymemberswereafraidofhim,sotheylockedhimintheroomandpreventedhimfromcomingout.Hissisterwasinchargeoffeedinghimeveryday.Gradually,allhispastlivinghabitsdisappeared.Hereallybecameaworm.Helikesdarkcornersandeatsfoodthatwormslove.Theonlythingthathasnotchangedishisthoughtsandemotions.Thishasbecomehistragedy..Once,myyoungersisterwasplayingtheviolin-----myyoungersister’sviolinwassuppliedbyhimtoworkhardinthepast-----hewasexcitedforawhileandwantedtogobacktothetimeoflisteningwithhisfamily,butthefamilyjustforgottolockthedooragain.,Sohecrawledoutunknowingly,butcausedagreatcommotion,thetenantfledinpanic,andhisfamilyhurriedin.Thatnight,thesisterwhowasleastafraidofhimalsosaidtoabandontheworm,saying:"Whatifthiswormisnotanelderbrotherfrombeginningtoend?"Thewormheardit,andthewormdiedthenextday.

Thestoryof"TheMetamorphosis"isobviouslynotaneventinreallifeatall.Itisnotonlyliterature,butalsophilosophy.Itexpressesafatalalienation.ThisalienationcanbeputintoanyUnderthestructureofthiskindofpoliticalsociety,whetheritisanextremecommercialobjectification,atotalitariansociety,orevenaschizophrenicalienationfromreality...Everyonecaninterpretthestoryofmanbecomingawormbasedonthealienationpresentedinhisownstateofexistence,andthushaveacontextualconnectionwiththeliterarywork"TheMetamorphosis".

HabitDestruction

Kafka’sothernovel,TheTrial,publishedin1925,hassimilarcharacteristics."Trial"referstoapersonwhoissuddenlyaccusedofguiltonacertaindayofacertainyear.HemustgototrialeverySundayandlivearoutinelifeonweekdays.Therun-down,noisy,andinterpersonalabsurdityofthetrialsiteiscompletelyincompatiblewiththecomfortofdailylife.Whatmadehimmostpainfulwasthathedidn'tevenknowwhathissinwas.Hefoundthateveryonearoundhimknewhewasguiltyandknewhewasontrial,butwheneverhewantedtoaskwhathewasguiltyof,everyone,includinghisfatherandcolleagues,allavoided,concealed,andmysteriously.It'sunpredictable.Inthepainofknowingwhattodo,healienatedhimfromthepeoplearoundhim,hisdailylifeandtheSundayofjudgment,therulesofdailylifeandtheabsurdityofthejudgmentday.Intheend,hewaskilledinexplicablyontheroadasifithadnothingtodowiththetrial.Thechargewas"likeadog."

Thisstoryalsoneedsaphilosophicalinterpretation.Itpresentsalienationandabsurdity.Somepeopleinterpretitasadictatorship,whileothersinterpretitasanimproperandneuroticsenseofsininstilledinpeopleundertheChristianfaith,orthepersonwhomaterializesthesocietyas"inhuman."

Kafkasaid:"Existenceisactually'devoidofcontent'and'uncertain',andtherefore'unspeakable'.Nevertheless,peopletendtoitallthetime."InKafka'sview,theworldisabsurd,andpeoplemustendureeverything,sothattheyformahabitualattitudetowardsallabsurdities,andhumanexistencecanachievefreedom.

ThisviewofKafkaisactuallyquite"self-destructive."ComparedtoCamus,Camustendstofightback.Hismethodofcounterattackwastorespondtotheabsurditybytheabsurdity.ThisviewisclearlyseeninCamus's"TheOutsider"("TheOutsider")publishedin1942.

AbsurdRebellion

Thebeginningofthe"Outsider"storyis"Motherisdead".Butinthisimportantevent,theprotagonist'sattitudeisextremelycoldandruthless.Onthedayofhismother'sfuneral,hemethisgirlfriendandwenttobedtomakelove.Theemotionalstateofthepeoplearoundtheactorisequallyabsurd.Forexample,apersonwhoeatssoftfoodandreliesonhisgirlfriendasaprostitutetoprovideforhimself,butrepeatedlybeatshisgirlfriendbecausehisgirlfriendisunfaithful.Anotherexampleisanoldmanwhoraisesadog.Hehasarelationshipwiththedog.Hebeatsthedogandthedogbarksathim.LaterThedogranaway,buttheoldmancried,feelingthathehadlosthishopeofsurvival.Asfortheclimaxofthenovel:theprotagonistkilledAlgerianswithagun,notbecausehisfriendshadagrudgeagainstthem,butbecausethesunwassodazzlingthathestretchedoutaknife.Duringtheactor'sprison,Camusspentaverylongtimedescribingtheinconsistentlifesituation.Intheend,theactorwassentencedtodeath.Thereasonforthemurderisalsoextremelyridiculous:"Hedidn'tcryonthedayhismotherdied."

Itcanbeseenfrom"TheOutsider"thatCamusrespondedwithresistance.Absurdphilosophyoflife.Hisviewoflifeislikeaprison,lifeisincoherentandfragmented.Hisinterpretationofvalue,meaning,religioussentiment,andthesituationoflifeintheworldaresimplyfourwords:"absurdity"and"foreignland.".

Camus'centralconceptis"ridiculous".Bornoutofabsurdity.Facedwithabsurdity,"rebellion"appears.Therefore,Jameusfamouslysaid:"Irebel,therefore,Iexist."Itistodisregardallexistingorderandmoralsandchoosethepathyouwanttotake.Notonlydoyounotavoidtheabsurdity,butlettheabsurditycontinue.Hesaidthrough"TheMythofXerxphus":

"Rebelliongiveslifevalue."

AccusingChrist

ExistentialliteratureappearedinJanuaryandFebruaryOntheoccasionoftheSecondWorldWar,itscontentisabsolutelyrelatedtotheabsurddespairbroughtaboutbythetwowars.Andjustashumanbeingsabandonedtheirbeliefsafterthetwowars,existentialliteraturealsobanishedbeliefs.

Forexample,Camus,hewasquitedissatisfiedwiththe"Kikkotheology"inthephilosophyofexistence.Althoughheknewtheabsurdityoflife,heencouragedthebeliefinthelastfight:withfaith.LeaptomeetGod,Camussaidthatthisis"self-deprecating","self-abandoning",and"philosophicalsuicide."

Becket's"WaitingforGodot"isobviouslyanexistentialliteraturethataccusesfaith."WaitingforGodot"isadramainwhichthetwoprotagonistshavebeenwaitingforGodot,andtheyhavebeenboring,bored,andanxiouswhilewaiting.Thebeginningoftheplotisadialogue:"Nothingcanbedone!"

"Ihavebeenavoidingthatideaallmylife,tellmyself,don'tbeconfused,youhaven'ttriedeverythingyet!SoIcontinuetofight."

Thenthereappearedinthedialogue"Thehopeisnotachieved,whichisworrying."ThissentencecomesfromProverbs13:12,butthenextsentenceisdeleted:"WhateveryouwantItisthetreeoflife."

Thisconstitutestheaccusationthemeofthewholeplay:"Godotisnotcoming."

Whatisthetruthinallthis?Inadditiontotheabovecentralthemes,therearealsomanydialoguesagainstreligion,suchas:"HaveyoureadtheBible?RemembertheGospels?""IrememberthemapsoftheHolyLand.Theyareallcoloredandbeautiful.TheDeadSeaislightblue.IfeltthirstywhenIsawit.""WhenJesusfixedthecross,hesavedarobber.Whydidhesavethisoneandnottheotherfromdeath?Whydidonlyoneofthefourauthorsmentionthatarobberwassavedandwhomdowewanttobelieve?Record?"

"Whatdidweaskhimfor?Akindofprayer,akindofvaguerequest.Howdidheanswer?Hesaidhewouldthinkaboutit,hehadtothinkaboutit,hecouldn’tagreeAnything."

Pozuosaidabouthisrelationshipwithluckymastersandslaves(theyrefertoAbel,Cain,andallmankind):"Icanchangehisidentity,hecanchangeBecomemyidentity,iffatehappenstobenotwhatitisnow."

"IhavebeencomparedwithChristallmylife.Christcanatleastbecrucified,butwehavenothingtodo.""WaitingforGodot"Toaccusereligion,butalsotostatetheabsurdityofthedestinyofhumanhistory.Forexample,thefollowingdialogue:

"ArewechainedbyGodot?"

BoZuo:"Letusstoptalkingaboutourowngeneration,becauseitismorejoyfulthanthepreviousgenerationQuiteabit."

"Nightcomesunexpectedly,andthingsoneartharelikethis."

BoZuo:"Luckydances,IcallthisgenerationThedepressionofthelamb."

"Anotherdayhaspassed,andanotherdayhaspassed."

"Yousayyouarehappy,evenifitisnottrue."

"Anyonehashislittlecrosstobearuntilhediesandisforgotten."

"Wenolongerthink,nolongerhaveenergy,cannotremainsilent,andturnadeafear.Weobviouslycanlivewithoutourminds.Whatareweaskingfor?Wehavetofindthingstomakeourselvesfeellikeweexist."

BoZuo:"OnedayIwakeupasblindasfate.Theblindhasnoconceptoftime,andtheproductsoftimefollow.It’shidden,andluckissuddenlydumb.Youkeepaskingwhenandwhendidithappen?Didyourdamntimenottorturemeenough?"

"Whattruthcantherebeinallthis?What?"

Thefinallineof"WaitingforGodot"was:"Let'sgo!"Buttheydidn'tmove.

§Fromhomesicknesstowandering

BeckettwontheNobelPrizeinLiteraturein1969.His"WaitingforGodot"waspublishedin1952,afullseventyyearsafterNietzsche's"DeathofGod"(1882),theprophetofexistentialliteraryphilosophy.InNietzsche'swork"TheWisdomofJoy"whichproducedthesentence"DeathofGod",heconsciouslydeniedthebeliefinthemeaningandvalueofexistencegiventheauthorityofChristianityforthefirsttime.Hedescribedamadmanrunningaroundthemarketcarryinganoillampduringthedayandshouting:"I'mlookingforGod!...WheredidGodgo?Itellyounow!WekilledGod!Itwasyouandme....,Godisdead,justlikethat!WearetheonewhokilledGod!"Nietzschestatednotonlythatheconsciouslyabandonedfaith,butalsopropheticallystatedwhatwascoming,TherenunciationofGodthroughouttheage.

AnothergreatRussianwriter,Dostoevsky,aRussianwritersometimesclassifiedasapioneerofexistentialliterature,wasfouryearsearlierthanNietzsche."(1878)"Ivansaid:"BecausethereisnoGod,everythingcanbeallowed."(referringtomorality)

Becket’s"WaitingforGodot"isactuallynothingbutNietzsche,FurtherverificationbypioneerssuchasCamus.

GuidetoSalvation

Heidegger,thepioneerofexistentialphilosophy,saidthatametaphysicalabstractionoftheothersideoftheworldhasended,buthedidnotannouncetheendofGod’sfaith,heonlyannouncedamethodology’Stermination.Laterscholarsdescribedthephilosophyhestartedasa"wanderinghomesick",rememberinghishometownoffaith,whichhasindeedbeenloominginhisphilosophicalthinkingin"BeingandTime".Thephilosophicalthinkingoftimeinhisphilosophicalsystemhasindeedbeenlooming.Thedescriptionofthe"revealing"and"revealing"oftheexistenceoftruthinhisphilosophicalsystemaffirmstosomeextentthatthetruthmustexistandshowsayearningforthetruth.

Butitisgettingfartherandfarther,moreandmorefocusingonlyonthepresentworld,orbecomingaplayfulattitudeinthe"delayofmeaning".Forexample,Deshida,whohasaconsiderableinfluenceonpost-structuralphilosophy,ismorelikeatrampthanHeidegger.Heidegger's"phenomenologicaldecomposition"isacriticalstepthatdecomposesconceptstotheirroots.Becauseconceptshavebeenobscuredanddeviatedinthelonghistoryofhistory,itisnecessarytocleanuptheirgenealogy,findtheirorigins,andinfertheirdestiny.Deshidajustseizedthedeviationanddisagreementandbroketheconsistency.Heideggeraimstorestoredialogue,butDeshidadoesnot.Heideggeremphasizesontologicaldifferencesinordertoestablishbasicontology,andDeshidausesdifférancetodissolvemetaphysics.

Similarly,thereisthebeginningofliterature,WalteroftheFrankfurtSchool.Benjaminoncesaidinhisliterarycriticismtheory:"Onlybybeingcompletelyconvincedofthemiseryandmeaninglessnessofallearthlyexistence,canitbepossibletoseeavisionthatrisesfromtheruinsandleadstotherescueofthekingdom."Obviouslyspeaking,describingthesenseof"ruins"ofdisillusionment,absurdity,hopelessness,andemptinessthroughliteratureisaprocessofredemption,justlikethepainbeforethearrivalofthe"Messiah",usingthe"dialecticalimage"asredemptionIntheformofexistence.

IsBenjamintooromantic?AtleastHabermassaidthatafterBenjamin’sexistenceofliterature,literaturetendstobethesameasphilosophy.Seriouspeoplemaybeclosetofeminismandhomosexualityissues,orclosetomagicalrealismunderthewaveofmysticism,ordealwithracismissues.Mostofthemcontinuetocynicalridicule,suchasthedecadenceofpackagingcalledblackhumororyellowhumor...,coupledwiththeintegrationofallartandliteraturebycommercialculture,artandliteraturecannotonlybecomeakindofsalvationasBenjaminsaid.Evenironically,whowillredeemartandliteraturehasbecomethemostconcernedissueintheartandliteraturecircles.

Artandliteraturearestandingatacrossroads,lookingforsalvation,nothingmorethanlookingforanotherwayout.Justasinexistentialphilosophy,Zikkok’stheologyhasledfromabsurdityto"astrokeoffaith",andinexistentialliteraturethereisalsoDustoevsky’swayof"waitingforsalvation"inthehumbleandsufferingworld,ifitwasself-destructiveorabsurd.Fightingagainstabsurdityandredeemingabsurditywithartandliteratureisamiscalculation.IsthedirectionpointedoutbyChikkogoandDostoyevsky,whohavebeenleftoutforalongtime,apossibilitythatrequirescarefulconsideration?

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