economics

Introduction

Theeconomistgivesadefinition:

Economicsstudieshowasocietyusesscarceresourcestoproducevaluablegoods,andputstheminDistributebetweendifferentindividuals.

——PaulSamuelson,"Economics"

Economicsisastudyofwealth,butalsoastudyofpeople.——Marshall's"PrinciplesofEconomics"

Generalscholarswillclassifythescopeofresearchintothe"micro"or"macro"level."Microeconomics"studiesthedecision-makingissuesbetweenindividualsorindividualsandotherindividuals.Theseissuesincludetheconsumptionofeconomicgoods,theinputofscarceresourcesintheproductionprocess,theallocationofresources,thechoiceofallocationmechanisms,andsoon."Macroeconomics"takestheregionalandnationallevelsastheresearchobjects.Commonanalysisincludesissuessuchasincomeandproduction,currency,prices,employment,andinternationaltrade.

Undernormalcircumstances,economictheoryisbasedontheassumptionofrational"maximization",andeveryonewillchoosethemostbeneficialoptionforthemwithinthelimits.Ineconomictheory,thetruthofthehypothesisisnotimportant.Aslongastheinferredhypothesiscanbeverifiedandcanexplainandinfertherealworld,weacceptthistheory.ButthetheoryofAustrianeconomicsisbasedontheaxiomofactionthatpeopleactwithpurpose.Hisschoolclearlyopposedtherationalityandmaximizationasthelogicalpremiseofeconomics.

Anytheorywithexplanatorypowermustberefutablebyfacts,butithasnotbeenoverturnedbyfacts.Wecanneverproveatheory,becausethenexteventwillalwayshaveachancetooverthrowthetheory.

Dailyeconomicissuesaremainlydividedintotwopoints:

1.Researchersexpect"whatwillhappen"underdifferentchoices;

2.DiscussionPeoplechoose"whattodo".

Theformeriscalled"empiricaleconomics",thelatteriscalled"normativeeconomics",andthedailyeconomicscoursestaughtinschoolsbelongto"empiricaleconomics".

Historicalorigin

AmongthemaincontributionsofancientGreeceineconomicthought,Xenophon's"Economy",Plato'stheoryofsocialdivisionoflaborandAristotle'stheoryofcommodityexchangeDoctrinewithmoney.Xenophon's"Economy"discusseshowslaveownersmanagefamilyfarmsandhowtoincreasewealthwithusevalue.XenophonattachesgreatimportancetoagricultureandbelievesthatagricultureisthebestoccupationforthefreepeopleinGreece,whichhasanimpactontheeconomicthinkingofancientRomeandthelaterFrenchPhysiocrats.Inthebook"TheUtopia",Platofromthetheoryofhumannature,fromtheprincipleofstateorganization,andfromthelivingbeingsofusevalue.Buthehasanegativeattitudetowardsbothcommercialcapitalandusurycapitalpursuingmonetarywealthbasedontheprincipleofjustice.

TheeconomicthoughtsofancientRomearepartlyfoundintheworksofseveralfamousthinkerssuchasDaCatto(234BCto149BC),Varo(116to27BC)andothers.

Attheendofthe19thcentury,withtheevolutionoftheresearchobjectsofbourgeoiseconomics,theyweremoreinclinedtodemonstrateeconomicphenomenainsteadoffocusingontheanalysisofnationalpolicies.Someeconomistschangedthepoliticaleconomy.name.BritisheconomistWSJevons,intheprefaceofthesecondeditionofhis"TheoryofPoliticalEconomy"in1879,clearlystatedthat"economics"shouldbeusedinsteadof"politicaleconomics",thinkingthatsinglewordsaresimplerthandoublewords.Clear;removingtheword"politics"isalsomoreinlinewiththeobjectandthemeofsubjectresearch.In1890,A.Marshallpublishedhis"PrinciplesofEconomics",whichchangedthelong-usedsubjectofpoliticaleconomyfromthetitleofthebook.Bythe20thcentury,inWesterncountries,thenameeconomicsgraduallyreplacedpoliticaleconomy.

Inadditiontothein-depthdevelopmentofdisciplines,thetrendofinterdisciplinaryandinnovativedevelopmentinthefieldofeconomicsisveryobvious.Manyeye-catchingemergingedgedisciplineshaveemerged,suchasEvolutionaryEconomics.Amarginalsciencebetweenbiologyandeconomicsthatemergedintheeleventhcentury,andevolutionarysecuritiesisamarginaldisciplinebetweenbiologyandsecurities.

Westerneconomics

Withtheemergenceanddevelopmentofcapitalistproductionmethods,bourgeoiseconomicsappearedandformedaccordingly.

Mercantilism

The16thto17thcenturywastheperiodofprimitiveaccumulationofcapitalinWesternEurope.Theriseanddevelopmentofcommercialcapitalduringthisperiodpromotedthecollapseofthefeudalnaturaleconomy,theunificationofthedomesticmarket,andaccumulatedalargeamountoffundsthroughtheplunderingofcoloniesandtheexpansionofforeigntrade,whichpromotedthedevelopmentofhandicraftsintheworkshops,andcontributedtotheflourishingofcapitalistproductionmethods.Conditionswereprovided,anditwasduringthisperiodthatmercantilismrepresentingtheinterestsandrequirementsofcommercialcapitalcameintobeing.Mercantilismoriginallyreferstothepoliciesadoptedbythecountrytoobtainmonetarywealth.Aftertheendofthe16thcentury,manybooksadvocatingmercantilismappearedinBritainandFrance.Mercantilismattachesimportancetotheaccumulationofgold,silverandcurrency,regardsgoldandsilverastheonlyformofwealth,andbelievesthatforeigntradeisthetruesourceofwealth,andonlythroughsurpluscanmoregoldandsilverwealthbeobtained.Therefore,itisadvocatedtodevelopforeigntradewiththesupportofthestate.However,thestudyofmercantilismislimitedtothecirculationprocess,andacompleteeconomictheorysystemhasnotyetbeenformed.

ClassicalEconomics

Afterthemiddleofthe17thcentury,firstintheUKandtheninFrance,thehandicraftindustrygraduallydevelopedintothemainformofindustrialproduction.Mercantilismhasnotadaptedtotheinterestsandrequirementsofthegrowingindustrialcapital.Atthistime,thefeudalsystemwasstillseriouslyhinderingthedevelopmentofcapitalism,andthetaskfacingthebourgeoisiewastofightagainstfeudalforces.Thiskindofstrugglerequiresatheoreticalexplanationofhowthecapitalistmodeofproductionenablesrapidgrowthofwealth,discussesthelawsofwealthproductionanddistribution,anddemonstratesthesuperiorityofcapitalistproduction.Asaresult,theclassicaleconomicsofresearchfromthecirculationprocesstotheproductionprocesscameintobeing.TheforerunnersofclassicaleconomicswereW.PettyinEnglandandP.BouagerbelinFrance.Petty'smaincontributionistoputforwardsomebasicviewpointsofthelabortheoryofvalue,andonthisbasis,preliminaryinspectionsofwages,landrent,interestandothercategories.Bouagerbelbelievesthatthecirculationprocessdoesnotcreatewealth,andonlyagricultureandanimalhusbandryarethesourceofwealth.

Thevulgarizationofclassicaleconomics

Whenclassicaleconomicsreacheditspeakintheearly19thcentury,italsobeganitsvulgarizationprocess.ThisreflectsthecharacteristicsofclasscontradictionsintheearlystagesoftheindustrialrevolutioninWesternEurope.J.-B.SayinFranceandT.R.MalthusinEnglandarethefoundersofvulgarizingclassicaleconomics.Say'scastratedlabortheoryofvaluedevelopedSmith'sthreevulgarviewsthatincomedeterminesexchangevalue;healsostartedfromthetheoryofutilityvalue,turnedtothetheoryofproductioncosts,andthenestablishedthedistributiontheoryofthe"TrinityFormula".Healsoputforwardthemarketlawof"supplycreatesitsowndemand",whichfundamentallydeniesthepossibilityofadisconnectbetweensupplyanddemandandgeneraloverproductionincapitalism.WhilevulgarizingSmithianism,MalthushadafierceargumentwithRicardo.HeseizedRicardo'sunsolvableproblemsinthetheoryofvalueandattacked,andtriedtodenyRicardo'stheoryoflaborvalueandthetheoryofprofitsources.J.MillandJ.R.McCullochappearedasfollowersofSmithandRicardo,andvulgarizedclassicaleconomicsintheformofannotationsandpopularization.

BourgeoisEconomics

Inthelate19thcentury,withthefurtherdevelopmentofthecapitalisteconomy,thecontradictionsofcapitalismintensified.TheupsurgeofthelabormovementandthedisseminationofMarxisteconomicshavehadagreatimpactontheruleofthebourgeoisie.Inthissituation,bourgeoiseconomicsabandonedthecloakofclassicaleconomicsorestablishedanewschoolofvulgarityinthepostureofacriticofclassicaleconomics.

Academicfaction

TheMercantilismSchool

TheMercantilismSchoolwasborninthe15thcenturywhenWesternEuropeancapitalismemergedandthegreatgeographicaldiscoveryperiod,Itisbelievedthatthedirectsourceofwealthisthefieldofcirculationandtheschoolofeconomicsthatinsistsoninternationaltradeandprotectsthedomesticmarket.

Thedevelopmentoftheschoolofmercantilismcanbedividedintotwohistoricalperiods,approximatelyfromthesecondhalfofthe15thcenturytothefirsthalfofthe17thcenturyasearlymercantilism,andfromthefirsthalfofthe17thcenturytothesecondhalfofthe18thcenturyaslatemercantilism.Intheearlydays,itadvocatedstrictlyprohibitingtheexportofgoldandsilver,andadoptedtheabsoluteprincipleof"buylessandsellmore"inforeigntrade.RepresentativeswereAntonioSerrafromItaly,JohnHalesfromtheUnitedKingdomandAnndeMunchfromFrance.Laitian.Inthelaterperiod,itpaidattentiontofosteringthedevelopmentoffactoryhandicraftindustryandexpandingcommodityexports,andallowedcurrencyexportsandthedevelopmentofcolonialtransshipmenttrade.Itadvocatedloweringpricesandforeigncompetition,butrequiredforeigntradetoexceedandobtainatradesurplus.RepresentativesincludeBritishThomasMeng,JamesStuartandPhilipWilhelmvonHornikofGermany.

PoliticalEconomics

MarxistpoliticaleconomicsisKarlMarxandFriedrichEngels’suseoftheproletarianworldoutlookandtheconceptofhistory──theestablishmentofdialecticalmaterialismandhistoricalmaterialismThesciencethatclarifiesthelawsgoverningtheproduction,distribution,exchange,andconsumptionofmaterialmaterialsatvariousstagesofthedevelopmentofhumansociety.

MarginalUtilitySchool

ThisisavulgarschoolthatappearedinseveralcountriesinWesternEuropeintheearly1870s.Itischaracterizedbyadvocatingmarginalutilityvaluetheoryandmarginalanalysis.Intheprocess,twomajortribeswereformed:oneisthepsychologicalschoolortheAustrianschoolbasedonpsychoanalysis,themainrepresentativesofwhichareC.Menger,F.vonWieselandE.vonBom-BaveyofAustria.Keetal.;oneistheSchoolofMathematicsorLausanneSchoolwithmathematicsasananalyticaltool.ItsmainrepresentativesareJevonsintheUnitedKingdom,L.WalrasandV.ParetoinFrance.ThemainrepresentativeofthemarginalutilityschoolintheUnitedStatesisJ.B.Clark,whoproposedthemarginalproductivitydistributiontheoryonthebasisofthemarginalutilitytheory.Themainthrustofthisschoolistopromotesubjectiveidealism,denythetheoryoflaborvalueandsurplusvalue,anddefendthecapitalistsystemofexploitation.Contemporarybourgeoiseconomistscalltheemergenceofmarginalutilitytheoryofvalue"marginalistrevolution",thatis,arevolutioninclassicaleconomics.Themarginalanalysismethodusedbythisschoollaterbecameanimportantfoundationforthedevelopmentofbourgeoiseconomics.

·NeoclassicalEconomics

ThemainrepresentativeisMarshalloftheUniversityofCambridgeintheUnitedKingdom.Inhisbook"PrinciplesofEconomics"publishedin1890,InheritingthetraditionofBritishvulgareconomicssincethe19thcentury,omnipotent,eclecticapproachtointegratethetheoryofsupplyanddemand,thetheoryofproductioncosts,thetheoryofmarginalutility,andthetheoryofmarginalproductivity.Afairlycompleteeconomicsystemwiththe"pricetheory"asthecore,thisisthesecondmajorreconciliationandsynthesisofthevulgareconomicviewsafterJSMill.Heanalyzeseconomicphenomenawithagradualperspective;usestheequilibriumconceptofmechanicsandtheconceptofmathematicstoanalyzetheequilibriumofsupplyanddemandofcommoditiesandproductionfactorsandthedeterminationofprices;usessubjectivepsychologicalmotivationtoexplainhumaneconomicbehavior;instaticandpartialequilibriumanalysisIntroducethetimefactorandsoonwithintheframe.Hereplacedthetheoryofvaluewiththetheoryofequilibriumprice,andbasedonthiscore,establishedthetheoryofdistributioninwhichtheequilibriumpriceofeachfactorofproductiondeterminesitsshareofnationalincome.Hepraisedfreecompetition,advocatedlaissez-faire,andbelievedthatthecapitalistsystemcanachievetheequilibriumoffullemploymentthroughtheautomaticadjustmentofthemarketmechanism.Theessenceofthistheoreticalsystemistocoverupcapitalistexploitationandobliteratecapitalistanarchyandmanyothercontradictions.Fromtheendofthe19thcenturytothe1930s,neoclassicaleconomicshasbeenregardedasamodelbyWesterneconomicscircles.

·InstitutionalSchool

ThisisavariantofthehistoricalschoolthatappearedintheUnitedStatesattheendofthe19thcenturyandthebeginningofthe20thcentury.ItsmainrepresentativesareT.Veblen,J.R.Commons,W.C.Mitchellandsoon.Theyconcretizedthehistoricalschoolmethodintothestudyofsystemevolution,deniedthesignificanceofeconomictheory,appearedinapostureofcriticizingcapitalism,andadvocatedreformistpolicies.

·TheSwedishSchool

Inaddition,theSwedishSchoolrepresentedbyK.Wicksell(1851～1926)appearedinNorthernEurope.Marshall'sdifferenttheoreticalsystemsemphasizedthebalancebetweeninvestmentandsavings,andputforwardhisowninteresttheory,whichoccupiedaspecialplaceinthebourgeoiseconomicsofthisperiod.

·EvolutionaryEconomics

Differentfromtheresearchparadigmofmainstreameconomictheory,evolutionaryeconomicsmainlystudiesthemarketprocessofchangeanddevelopmentincompetition,correspondingtoNeoclassicaleconomicsofstaticequilibrium.Itobserveseconomicphenomenafromanirreversiblehistoricalperspective.Itstudiesopensystemsandfocusesonchange,learning,andcreation.Thecompetitiveprocessisunbalancedandpath-dependent,whichisregardedasascreeningmechanism.Infact,asearlyas1898,VanBurenputforwardtoeconomists,"Whyiseconomicsnotanevolutionaryscience?"Marshallalsoclearlypointedoutintheprefaceof"PrinciplesofEconomics","EconomistsTheMeccashouldlieineconomicbiology,noteconomicmechanics."Thecurrentpopularresearchfieldsofevolutionaryeconomicsincludeevolutionaryfinanceandevolutionarysecurities.

ThedevelopmentofGermancapitalisminthefirsthalfofthe19thcenturystilllagsfarbehindBritainandFrance.Underthisspecialhistoricalcondition,theGermanhistoricalschool,pioneeredbythenationalistF.Liszt,emerged.Thehistoricalschoolisdividedintotwostages:theoldhistoricalschoolandthenewhistoricalschool.Theoldhistoricalschool,foundedbyW.Rochelle,wasactiveinthe1840sto1970s.TheyopposedtheBritishandFrenchtraditionaleconomicsbeforethemid-nineteenthcentury,opposedabstractdeductionwithhistoricalinduction;opposedtheorieswithhistory,deniedtheobjectiveexistenceofeconomiclaws;opposedcosmopolitanismwithnationalism;opposedthepursuitofexchangevaluewiththecultivationofproductiveforces;Thestateintervenesintheeconomytoopposelaissez-faire.WiththerapiddevelopmentoftheGermancapitalisteconomyandthevigorousriseofthelabormovementinthe1970s,G.vonSchmüller,A.Wagner(1835-1917),L.Brentano(1844-1931),etc.appeared.ThemainrepresentativeoftheNewHistoricalSchool,onthebasisoftheabove-mentionedbasicviewpoints,putforwardthereformist"socialeconomicpolicy",sotheyarecalled"PulpitSocialists."

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